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Voorkant Flowers 'Runaway kids and teenage prostitution' R. Barri FLOWERS
Runaway kids and teenage prostitution - America's Lost, Abandoned, and Sexually Exploited Children
Westport, Conn.-London: Praeger, 2001, 212 blzn.;
ISBN: 03 1331 4926

[Dit boek maakt gelijk een professioneler en genuanceerder indruk dan dat van Dean-Thomson. De context: de Verenigde Staten.]

(xi) Preface

"Each year in the United States, as many as 2 million children leave home for whereabouts unknown by the parents or caretakers. Tens of thousands of other children are pushed out of the house or abandoned by parents or guardians. These caretakers may be aware of where these youths are located, but do not want to find them and bring them back home. This only exacerbates the problem of homeless street kids who must not only search for survival but also search for love in all the wrong places. However, not all runaways leave home due to intolerable conditions or family dysfunction. Some find they prefer to be on their own for various reasons including independence, sex, problems at school, rebellion, drug addiction, and adventure. Rarely do they find a better life away from home. " [mijn nadruk] (xi)

[Met andere woorden: kinderen lopen niet alleen zelf weg, ze worden vaak ook door hun ouders verstoten of achtergelaten; weglopers komen niet altijd uit vreselijke gezinnen, maar kiezen soms zelf voor een leven los van het gezin waarin ze opgroeiden. Dit beeld lijkt me genuanceerd genoeg. Overigens: twee miljoen kinderen die elk jaar weglopen in de VS? Dat is enorm.]

(13) Introduction

"Although most runaways eventually return home, there are still hundreds of thousands who end up permanently living on the streets each year. Many of these kids have been sexually, physically, or emotionally abused or neglected at home; have problems with substance abuse, school attendance, or mental disorders; or are otherwise seriously disadvantaged in their displacement to street life. "(xiii)

(1) Part I - The Dynamics of Running Away

(3) Chapter 1 - The Scope of Runaway Youth

"Typically a runaway is defined as a person under the age of eighteen who voluntarily leaves home or another residence, and thereby the custody and control of parents or guardians. Some of these runaways are, in fact, throwaways — children who have been forced by parents or guardians to leave home or are not actively sought after (see Chapter 2)."(3)

[Goed zo, definities. Er valt denk ik wel wat af te dingen op het gebruik van het woord 'voluntarily' in de definitie. Instanties voegen er trouwens graag 'without permission' aan toe, zie ik, 'zonder toestemming van de ouders of pleegouders'. Een beetje typisch dat. Natuurlijk vraag je geen toestemming aan de ouders of pleegouders van wie je wegloopt. Dat is het hele idee. Het is belangrijk voor het hanteren van weglopen hoe lang jongeren weglopen: sommigen verdwijnen een paar uur, anderen een paar dagen, anderen zijn voor altijd vertrokken.]

"The NISMART report differentiated non-household runaways from runaways from household settings. Non-household runaways refer to children who ran away from juvenile facilities such as detention centers, summer camps, group foster homes, boarding schools, hospitals, and mental health institutions."(5)

[Ook dat maakt uit. Ik vraag me af hoe dat daar in de VS gaat met kinderen uit probleemgezinnen. Je leest en ziet weinig goeds over de 'foster care', worden kinderen dan voornamelijk ondergebracht (opgesloten?) in instellingen?]

Cijfers over weglopers.

"Girls are more likely to run away from home than boys, according to studies, surveys, and arrest data. The OJJDP reported that 58 percent of runaways were female, while 42 percent were male." [mijn nadruk] (8)

"The majority of runaway youth are teenagers. Eighty-six percent of runaways are between fourteen and seventeen years of age, as reported by the NRS."(9)

"The vast majority of runaways are white, non-Hispanic youths. The NISMART reveals that nearly three out of every four Broad Scope Runaways in the United States are white (see Figure 1.2). Blacks constitute approximately two in every ten runaways. About 4 percent of runaways are Hispanic, and 2 percent other races." [mijn nadruk] (10)

"Socioeconomics play an important role in the familial characteristics of the runaway, though findings on social class and runaways have been inconsistent. Most research indicates that there is a strong correlation between runaways and poverty." [mijn nadruk] (11)

"Most runaways run from broken homes, where at least one parent is absent. (...) Studies indicate that children are less likely to run away from households with both natural or adoptive parents present. Running away from home is disproportionately more likely in families with stepparents or live-in partners." [mijn nadruk] (13)

"SUMMARY
Runaway refers to children who have left home or a juvenile facility voluntarily. Every year as many as 2 million youths in the United States run away. Most are female, white, sixteen to seventeen years old, and ran away from homes absent at least one parent. Family income level does not appear significantly relevant for children who run away. Legally, the runaway is a status offender, subject to laws that apply only to juveniles. Runaway children from households are broken down into three categories: Broad Scope Runaways who stay away from home at least overnight, Policy Focal Runaways without a secure place to stay, and Runaway Gestures who leave home for only a matter of hours. Nearly half of all runaways return home within two days. Most end up at a friend's house upon leaving home.
Runaways from juvenile facilities are most often white, female, older teens from broken homes. Most run away from group foster homes and residential treatment centers. Nearly half the runaways leave the state, and around 40 percent ran away from the juvenile facility at least once before. "(14)

[Dit boek is echt een stuk beter dan dat van Dean-Thomson (1998). Deze gegevens geven een helder beeld van de weglopers.]

(17) Chapter 2 - The Extent of Throwaway Kids

"Unlike the runaway who leaves home of his or her own accord, the throwaway typically is put out of the house either directly or indirectly, usually against the child's wishes."(17)

[Het gaat om een grote groep, zeker eenderde van de jongeren die op straat leven zijn 'throwaways'. Omdat hun ouders ze vaak ook niet als vermist opgeven verdwijnen ze vaak letterlijk in de anonimiteit en komen ze als een John Doe of Jane Doe op de kerkhoven te liggen als het echt misgaat met ze. Er is voor deze jongeren dus ook vaak geen weg terug naar de familie.]

"Teenage homosexuals are especially at risk to be thrownaways ..."(18)

[Dat was ook al opvallend bij Dean-Thomson (1998): Ouders in de VS hebben blijkbaar erg grote problemen met het accepteren met de homo- of biseksualiteit van hun kinderen.]

Weer een reeks cijfers.

"Mothers are more likely to throw away children than fathers."(20)

[Die vond ik opvallend. Dit gaat tegen het heersende beeld in.]

"Girls are generally more likely to be thrown away than boys.(...)
Abandoned children tend to be male more than female."(21-22)

"Thrownaway children are predominantly older teens.(...) Thrownaway children abandoned by their parents or caretakers tend to be much younger than thrownaways forced out of the home (see Figure 2.4). According to the Community Professionals Study, more than half the abandoned children were age four or under. Nearly half fall between the ages of five and fourteen, while only 1 percent was age fifteen to seventeen."(22-23)

"Most youths thrown away are white."(23)

"Thrownaway children often tend to come from low-income families.(...) However, thrownaways are over represented in high- income families. More than 30 percent of Broad Scope Thrownaways come from families with household incomes of $40,000 or more."(23-24)

"Thrownaway children are more likely to come from broken homes than households with both parents (see Figure 2.6).(...)
Abandoned thrownaway children are more likely to come from homes where both parents were present. Thirty-seven percent of the abandoned youth in the Community Professional Study lived with both parents prior to being abandoned. " [mijn nadruk] (24)

(29) Chapter 3 - Runaways, Arrest, and the Police

"Since the runaway is considered a status offender (under the age of eighteen) rather than a criminal offender, the police must walk a delicate line in making arrests, detaining runaways, and returning them to parents or caretakers. This discretion and uncertainty can be further impacted by the circumstances that may have caused the child to run away, such as physical or sexual abuse, or abandonment by parents who essentially threw the runaway out of the house or did not report the child as missing. Hence, many runaways can be considered both offenders and victims, complicating the eventual outcome of the case. " [mijn nadruk] (29)

[Maar waarom is dat wettelijk zo? Waarom komt de politie er aan te pas? Waarom worden kinderen aan de ouders terugbezorgd? Zijn er eigenlijk instituten die weglopers een dak boven het hoofd bieden zonder ze te willen reguleren en disciplineren? ]

"In 1998, there were an estimated 165,100 arrests of persons as runaways. As some of the runaways were repeat offenders, the UCR data focuses on the number of arrests reported by law enforcement agencies rather than the number of individuals arrested."(29)

Tabel Flowers 01

[Waarom worden weglopers gearresteerd in plaats van op andere manieren opgevangen? Wat zijn 'runaway shelters' precies en hoe functioneren ze in dit geheel? Waarom worden weglopers hier 'offenders' genoemd? Waarom stopt de ouderlijke macht niet als kinderen 12 jaar zijn? Waarom kunnen kinderen er na hun 12de niet voor kiezen om ergens in gemeenschapshuizen van jongeren te gaan wonen? Het roept allemaal vragen op. De cijfers zijn schokkend en dit was 1998. Hoe zijn de cijfers vandaag de dag?]

"In addition to the labeling faced by runaways who are arrested and brought into the criminal justice system, they are also at risk for suicide or other victimization while in police custody."(31)

[Logisch, toch? Weglopers worden gecriminaliseerd en de politie is verplicht rekening te houden met de ouderlijke macht zodat er weglopers zijn die teruggebracht worden naar ouders die niet eens de verantwoordelijkheid kunnen dragen voor zichzelf. Geweldig.]

"Long-term trends indicate that juvenile arrests for running away are on the decline."(33)

[Maar waarom is dat zo?]

"Police contact with homeless children is fairly limited, on the whole, given the scope of street kids and lack of police resources for investigating their circumstances. Generally, law enforcement agencies favor referral of runaway and throwaway youth to social service agencies more equipped to deal with them, including foster homes and group homes for abandoned or throwaway children." [mijn nadruk] (37)

"Inconsistent laws and lack of parental cooperation can make it difficult for the police to locate and/or detain runaway, throwaway, and homeless youth. "(39)

(41) Chapter 4 - Why Teens Run Away from Home

"Family dysfunction, parental neglect, family drug use, and implications of sexual activity by the runaway are seen as strong indicators of running away by youth. In a recent study of runaway children, the following dis- turbing characteristics emerged:
• Sixty percent of runaways had parents who abused alcohol and/or drugs.
• Seventy percent of the runaways used drugs prior to leaving home.
One in four were born to mothers younger than seventeen years of age.
Half of the runaways experienced physical or sexual abuse at home.
One in four female runaways had been raped.
Thirty-six percent had been pregnant at least once.
Only 23 percent of female runaways used birth control.
• Half the male runaways under the age of fourteen were sexually active.
• Eighty percent of runaways had serious behavioral or emotional problems.
Only 13 percent of the runaways were considered functionally literate.
Only one-third ever sought help from a runaway shelter." [mijn nadruk] (42)

"According to experts, though many teens and preteens run away to escape an abusive, unhealthy environment, leaving home is largely a reflection of adolescent rebelliousness."(42)

[Waarom wordt dat opstandigheid genoemd? Dat heeft een negatieve gevoelswaarde. Je zou het ook assertiviteit of zelfverdediging kunnen noemen, een verstandige en bewuste keuze om zich niet aan te willen passen aan slechte omstandigheden en gewelddadig gedrag. En wie zou er niet kwaad worden als hij of zij een aantal van die zaken mee moet maken bij volwassen mensen die beter zouden moeten weten. Schokkend is toch wel het slechte opleidingsniveau, het gebrek aan kennis op het terrein van seksualiteit, en zo verder. Waaraan weer eens te zien is hoe belangrijk scholen zijn, hoe belangrijk seksuele openheid en voorlichting is.]

"Domestic violence is a major problem in this country. The American Medical Association estimated that 4 million spouses are battered each year in the United States. Similarly, a national health survey reported that 3.9 women — or 7 percent of all American women, married or living with someone — are beaten annually. Murray Straus estimated that 65 percent of all married couples were participants in abusive behavior as victims or offenders, with 25 percent considered serious. A woman is battered by her spouse every nine seconds in this country. " [mijn nadruk] (43)

[Leve de VS met zijn competitieve individualistische conservatieve samenleving en zijn traditionele mannen- en vrouwenrollen.]

"The sexual abuse and battering experienced by young runaways can also be perpetrated by boyfriends and others they are not intimately involved with. Studies show that one in three females will be beaten by a boyfriend prior to reaching the age of eighteen." [mijn nadruk] (43)

"The rate of runaways from low income families is high. Approximately 40 percent of runaway homeless and street kids come from families on public assistance or living in public housing. This is nearly twice the percentage of juveniles living in poverty in the general population. Around 70 percent of the runaways in Louise Homer's study were from families on welfare. Other studies have found a disproportionate number of runaway children from middle- and working-class backgrounds."(44)

[Armoede is dus een grote oorzaak. Die armoede betekent in de VS ook slecht onderwijs, werkeloosheid, alcohol- en drugmisbruik, etc. Kinderen vluchten vaak ook weg in alcohol en drugs, of proberen zich van het leven te beroven.]

"Not all runaway youth come from troubled, abusive families or are thrown away or abandoned. Some runaways actually leave home for life on the streets as part of a misguided sense of adventure and independence combined with teenage rebellion, precociousness, promiscuity, and a need for companionship.(...) Many runaway adventurers seek the camaraderie, comfort, and acceptances that they lack at home."(46-47)

"Some teenagers run away from home after having met someone on the Internet, often with promises of adventure, sex, and independence — lures too tempting to pass up for many caught between the boundaries of preadolescence and adulthood. The result is often anything but what was expected by the naive and gullible runaway.
Few runaway kids, irrespective of the reason for leaving home, will find life elsewhere to be better. At the same time, for many runaways the life left behind was too difficult to return to. These youths face a tough road with few options for a satisfactory way around their dilemma. "(47)

(51) Chapter 5 - The Perils for the Teenage Runaway

"When teens run away or are forced to leave home, what awaits them is often just as bad, if not worse, than what they ran from. They usually find themselves quickly unable to meet basic needs such as food and shelter. In order to meet these needs, many runaways will be forced into selling their bodies, selling drugs, or other delinquent behavior. In the process of be- coming child prostitutes and delinquents, runaways will encounter perils at almost every turn that will further rob them of their childhood and, in some cases, their life. These include AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy, sexual assault, theft, and other forms of victimization."(51)

"Each year anywhere from several hundred thousand to over a million teenage runaways become teen prostitutes in the United States."(52)

"It is estimated that as many as 200,000 runaways are at risk for contracting AIDS through prostitution and/or drug use in the United States each year.quot;(54)

(59) Chapter 6 - Theoretical Approaches to Running Away and Teenage Prostitution

"The question of why children run away from home and become engaged in a prostitution lifestyle has been explored through theoretical perspec- tives. Biologically, psychologically, and sociologically based theories have been applied to juvenile and young adult deviance and its causation. Some early theories such as those belonging to the biological positivistic school of thought have basically been rejected. Theories with social, cultural, or learning concepts are given more credibility in addressing teenage antisocial behavior. Most modern criminologists and theoreticians view such aberrations as multicausal, and approach it as such in attempting to explain. "(59)

"Sociological theories explain prostitution in causal terms related to the family, social structure, immorality, and sexual exploitation. Economic theorists blame prostitution on economic conditions, financial deprivation, the social structure, sex role stereotypes, and the substituting of money for love."(68)

(73) Chapter 7 - Policy, Practice, and Response to Runaway and Prostitution Involved Teens

"In spite of such positive approaches to the plight of runaway and sexually exploited youth, most experts agree that more effort is needed from policymakers, social services, community organizations, and the family to keep teenagers in a safe environment and rescue those who have slipped through the cracks. "(73)

[Is dat nu een nette manier om te zeggen dat de aanpak tot nu toe niet erg succesvol is?]

Volgt een beschrijving van de diverse wetten en organisaties die gemaakt dan wel ingericht werden om deze problemen aan te pakken.

(83) Part II - The Dynamics of Teenage Prostitution

(85) Chapter 8 - The Nature of Teenage Prostitution

"Teenage prostitution has reached epidemic proportions in this country with millions of teens engaged in selling their bodies for drugs, food, shelter, or other needs. Many of these child prostitutes are runaways or thrown out of the house, sexually or physically abused, and at high risk for exposure to the AIDS virus and numerous other diseases and illnesses. Pimps play a major role in the prostitution of girls, while boy prostitutes tend to be free agents in selling sexual favors. All teen prostitutes are forced to adjust to the harsh realities of the streets, which in turn dictates their involvement and degree of participation in the sex trade industry. Juvenile prostitutes are more likely than adult prostitutes to come into contact with law en- forcement, while more girls than boys tend to face involvement with the criminal justice system. Understanding the dynamics of teenage prostitution will allow us to better respond to the social, psychological, and medical needs of street kids and reduce the overall incidence of child prostitution. " [mijn nadruk] (85)

"Prostitution differs from other consensual sexual relations in that it is based primarily on money or other payment exchanging hands between the parties involved for the sexual acts to occur. Legally and historically, prostitution has been defined as a gender-specific offense — or one in which the offender is female." [mijn nadruk] (86)

[Maar tegenwoordig is dat dus al lang niet meer zo in die 'teen prostitution'.]

"The vast majority of child prostitutes are in their teens. According to research, the average age in which a juvenile enters prostitution is fourteen, while the median age of a teenage prostitute is 15.5 years old. Much of the data suggests that most teenage prostitutes are female, though an increase in male teenage prostitution has been reported by service providers. Some studies have found that as many as two in every three teen prostitutes are girls." [mijn nadruk] (86)

"Introduced at the 1902 Paris conference, the term white slavery refers to the trafficking of persons, typically girls and women, for sexual exploitation against their will. Many females are lured into white slavery, then abducted and forced to be prostitutes."(86)

"How big is the problem of teenage prostitution in the United States? Most sources indicate that the teen sex trade is a multimillion dollar business in this country, with hundreds of thousands to millions of girls and boys active participants. A report by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services estimated that there are 300,000 prostitutes age seventeen and under operating on the streets of America. Many of these are preteens as young as five years of age.(...) There is evidence that juvenile prostitution is on the rise in many parts of the country."(87)

(95) Chapter 9 - Teen Prostitutes, Arrest, and the Criminal Justice System

"Teens involved in prostitution not only face the hazards of street life and sexual exploitation, but also risk being arrested by the police as sex offenders and institutionalized."(95)

"In one such example in San Diego, a nineteen-year-old female prostitute and "boss hooker" for a violent pimp was recently arrested and charged with pandering, assault, and other prostitution-related offenses. In spite of the fact that she had a "horrific history of child abuse" — including being sexually molested at age six, abandoned, and turned out by her pimp — a judge sentenced her to five years in prison. Many young prostitute arrestees go from victim to convicted offender, only to repeat the process over and over. "(96)

[Onzinnige criminalisering, vind ik. Maar ja, de VS, hè? En elk politiedepartement mag zijn eigen beleid volgen op dat punt. Gelukkig wordt de aandacht steeds meer verlegd naar pooiers, klanten en anderen die jongeren commercieel uitbuiten.]

(107) Chapter 10 - Girl Prostitution

"There is much debate among experts on just how many girl prostitutes are active as sex workers at any given time in the United States. It is generally believed that there are at least 1 million teenage prostitutes plying their trade annually. Some estimate that twice as many children are engaged in prostitution nationally. Studies suggest that up to two-thirds of underage prostitutes are female. The vast majority of prostitution involved girls are runaways."(107)

[Wat een enorme aantallen!]

"Most girl prostitutes ply their trade as streetwalkers. However, teenage girls can also be found selling sex as call girls through escort services, massage parlors, brothels, hotels, and nightclubs."(107)

"Prostituted girls can be as young as five or six. However, according to Jennifer James, the median age of a girl prostitute is 16.9 years. Most girls are in fact younger when entering prostitution. In their study of teenage prostitution, Mimi Silbert and Ayala Pines found the average age of a girl's first prostitute experience to be fourteen. Other researchers have supported this conclusion.
Although a small percentage of girl prostitutes enter the business as independent operators, the vast majority are brought into the child sex trade by pimps, pornographers, Johns, family members, and even other young prostitutes. Studies indicate that pimps are primarily responsible for turning girls out. As many as 90 percent of teenage female prostitutes were coerced or charmed into selling sexual favors by a pimp."(108)

"Some evidence suggests that a growing number of teenage girls are sexual adventurers, engaging in prostitution not as the result of child abuse, dissatisfaction, domestic violence, mental illness, or related factors, but rather for the sexual excitement it brings. Dorothy Bracey found that many young females become prostitutes because they have friends who are prostitutes. A self-report survey of youth engaging in prostitution activities actually found that more than half the respondents were living with parents or families during the most recent plying of their trade." [mijn nadruk] (113)

[Dat begint dan erg te lijken op enjo kōsai in Japan, schoolmeisjes die het verder 'goed' hebben, maar luxe willen en dat laten betalen door mannen met wie ze mee gaan (niet per se voor seks trouwens, daar zit misschien het verschil).]

(119) Chapter 11 - The Pimp's Role in Teenage Prostitution

"The pimp plays a crucial role in the dynamics of teenage prostitution. Although virtually nonexistent in the adolescent male prostitution subculture, pimps are intricately involved in the lives of most prostituted girls. This relationship usually begins upon entry into prostitution and continues throughout the life of a girl prostitute. Most have run away from sexually abusive or otherwise dysfunctional homes straight into the arms of the manipulative and cunning pimp who seizes the opportunity for sexually exploiting vulnerable, needy girls. A combination of psychological and physical tactics are used by a pimp to keep a girl in his stable, combined with drugs, seduction, and the harsh realities of the streets. Few girl pros- titutes emerge from the pimp controlled commercial sex trade without se- rious bodily and emotional scars. "(119)

"Unlike the attractive, fit, sexy, smart images of runaways-turned- prostitutes often portrayed in Hollywood or fiction, in reality most pimps do not go after these types of girls who are likely to be more secure and confident in who they are. Instead, pimps seek out young females who are rather unattractive, insecure, and not particularly sexy. These girls are likely to be on the chubby side, asexual, limited in their social skills, and not very comfortable with males, especially boys their own age. "(120)

"The vast majority of pimps are adult males. In spite of the stereotype image of the urban African American male pimp "wearing flashy clothes, hats, and jewelry and driving a Cadillac or other large status symbol car," pimps can be any racial or ethnic persuasion and can ply their trade in the suburbs or rural areas as well as the inner cities. Indeed, most of the businessman pimps operating escort services, massage parlors, and strip clubs across the nation are white males."(121)

Veel geweld hier.

"How do pimps maintain the loyalty of girls in their stable? Violence is the primary means for ensuring that a girl will not leave a pimp for either another pimp or home. This can include actual physical violence and the threat of such through verbal abuse and intimidation. However, most pimps will use violence mainly as a last resort to keep young prostitutes from fleeing. They are more likely to rely on psychological manipulation of the prostitute through charm, affection, gifts, promises, pretense of love, and even by getting the girl pregnant. The baby is used as a pawn by the pimp to bind the prostituted girl to him — threatening to never let her have the child or even doing bodily harm to the child should the girl ever leave. Many pimps also turn the girls in their stable into drug addicts, thereby using their dependence to keep them in virtual sexual bondage."(124)

(129) Chapter 12 - Boy Prostitution

"Male prostitution has generally received less attention in the literature than female prostitution. This is apparently a reflection of the common belief that females constitute the majority of people prostituting themselves, therefore justifying the greater attention. Girl prostitutes, in particular, have been thought to represent as many as two-thirds of all child prostitutes. However, some researchers now believe that there may be as many boys active in the sex trade industry as girls. Moreover, with the advent of AIDS, greater focus has been placed on male prostitution, its incidence, and impact on the spread of the deadly virus. Recent studies suggest that young male prostitutes are less likely to be involved with the criminal justice system than their female counterparts, and less likely to return home once leaving for life on the streets. " [mijn nadruk] (129)

"Boy prostitutes are typically referred to on the streets as chickens, while homosexual men that solicit young male prostitutes are known as chicken hawks or chicken queens. In law enforcement and psychiatry, these men are seen as child molesters and pedophiles."(130)

[Dat is wonderlijk. In het kader van 'johns' die 'female teen prostitutes' kopen is het woord 'pedofiel' niet gevallen. Waarom hier ineens wel? Bovendien zijn het vaak geen pedofielen, maar mannen die niet aantrekkelijk genoeg zijn voor volwassenen en dan dit soort kansen 'grijpen' en betalen voor seks. Zoals verderop ook wordt aangeduid. Ik mis ook een vermelding van vrouwen die dit soort jongens voor seks gebruiken. Bestaat dat niet of speelt hier het bekende vooroordeel?]

(141) Part III - Correlates of Running Away and Teenage Prostitution

(143) Chapter 13 - Child Sexual Abuse

"The sexual abuse of children by family, acquaintances, or stranger perpetrators has been shown in many studies to be directly related to teenage prostitution and other child sexploitation. Girls who have been sexually abused, in particular, are more likely to enter prostitution and other high risk sexual activities than sexually abused boys, or girls who have not been abused sexually. Child sexual abuse often leads to running away from home, which in turn increases the likelihood that the runaway will become involved in prostitution, pornography, and other survival sexual activities. The implications of sexual abuse on the prostituted child can be enormous, including drug addiction, dangerous sexual relations with multiple persons, sexual abuse perpetrated by strangers, HIV infection, depression, and at- tempted suicide. " [mijn nadruk] (143)

Beschrijving van wat seksueel misbruik is en van wie de misbruikers zijn.

[Dat gebeurt genuanceerd zoals ik ook verwacht van Flowers: familieleden misbruiken het meest, ook vrouwen of oudere kinderen misbruiken, kinderen gaan er vaak "unintentionally or unwittingly" - p.144 - in mee. Alleen dat laatste - onbedoeld en onbewust - is iets te 'onschuldig'. Dat doet geen recht aan de 'agency' van kinderen waar andere auteurs op wijzen: kinderen kunnen nieuwsgierig zijn, het spannend vinden, een aantal seksuele handelingen lekker vinden.]

De cijfers lopen weer uiteen, maar seksueel misbruik komt erg vaak voor.

"Many experts believe that millions of children are being affected by sexual abuse in the United States each year. However, uniform, accurate figures of its incidence are hard to come by, given differing measuring devices and the secrecy associated with child sexual abuse. In a recent fifty-state survey of child maltreatment by the National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse, it was found that an estimated 17 percent of all cases of child abuse and neglect involved sexual abuse. According to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, there are around 130,000 reports of child sexual abuse substantiated each year. In an examination of nineteen prevalence studies of child sexual abuse, the rate of victimization ranged from 6 to 62 percent for females and 3 to 31 percent for males. In his study of child sexual abuse, David Finkelhor reported that as many as 52 percent of the adult females and 9 percent of the adult males sampled disclosed being victims of child sexual abuse.
Estimates of incest alone in the United States range from tens of thousands to well over a million cases annually. One study estimated that anywhere from 11 to 33 million people were involved in incestuous relations nationally. As many as one in three people may be victims of incest before reaching the age of eighteen, according to researchers.(...)
Child molestation, or pedophilia, may be at least as prevalent as incestuous sexual abuse, if not more common. It is estimated that 2 million children are the sexual victims of pedophiles in the United States annually. Hundreds of thousands of other children are at risk daily from sexual abuse by other sexual predators, pimps, pornographers, and sex offenders.
Most experts on child sexual abuse agree that the vast majority of cases go unreported and, thus, are unknown to researchers, medical personnel, and the authorities." [mijn nadruk] (145)

[Weer wonderlijk hoe de term 'pedofiel' hier gehanteerd wordt. Dus: als volwassen familieleden een kind seksueel misbruiken is het geen molestering van kinderen en geen pedofilie? Pedofielen zijn nooit familieleden? Volwassenen buiten de familie die kinderen misbruiken zijn allemaal pedofielen? Ik moet toch wat vraagtekens zetten, dan, bij de gebruikte onderzoeken. Dat twee miljoen kinderen in de VS jaarlijks het slachtoffer zijn van pedofielen is op meer dan één manier onwaarschijnlijk. Maar ... wat weten we? Dit is allemaal taboe en een beetje betrouwbaar onderzoek is dus niet goed mogelijk, zeker niet in de VS.]

"The American Humane Association (AHA) reported the average age of a sexually abused child to be 9.3 years of age. In nearly eight in ten cases of sexual abuse, the victim was female. The AHA found that the sexual abuse of girls appeared to increase relative to chronological age. According to the National Incidence Study, the rate of child sexual abuse is highest for girls age twelve to seventeen." [mijn nadruk] (146)

[Dat zou betekenen dat 20% van de slachtoffers 'male' zijn. En wie zijn daar de misbruikers? ]

"The relationship between child sexual abuse and teenage prostitution has been well documented in the literature. Children who are sexually abused are at increased risk to run away from home; in turn, most long-term run- aways will become prostituted youth."(146)

"Approximately 78 percent of all reported incest today is that of father-daughter, 8 percent sibling-sibling, 1 percent mother-son, and the balance involving multiple incestuous family members."(148)

[De gevolgen van misbruik die vervolgens beschreven worden zeggen weer eens niets over de invloed van de maatschappelijk context op hoe de 'slachtoffers' - de term is al typisch - later in hun leven gaan beoordelen wat ze vroeger hebben meegemaakt.]

(155) Chapter 14 - Child Pornography

"Child pornography is another branch of the sexual exploitation of children closely connected with teenage prostitution. In many instances, prostituted youth are simultaneously used by pornographers in the sex trade industry to produce smut in many forms. The lucrative nature of child pornography has made it a global enterprise, though much of its consumption is in the United States. The tremendous reach of the Internet has given participants in the child pornography industry a powerful means to exploit children internationally. This has caused further concern to those who seek to end the sexual misuse and exploitation of children through pornography and prostitution."(155)

"While no one can be certain just how far and deep the reach of child pornography goes in our society, the indication is that it may be far more severe than most conservative estimates. Child pornography is a thriving multibillion dollar business worldwide. It is estimated that in the United States alone, child porn takes in as much as six billion dollars each year. Child pornography constitutes approximately 7 percent of the total pornography in this country. Eighty-five percent of the worldwide sales of child pornography are made in the United States. In Los Angeles, an estimated 30,000 children are exploited by child pornographers annually." [mijn nadruk] (156)

"A recent study found that at least 264 different magazines containing pictures and descriptions of children in sexual acts are produced and distributed in the United States every month."(156)

[Logisch, het is het meest kapitalistische land ter wereld waar uitbuiting dus aan de orde van de dag is. En 90% van de mensen daar zeggen in god te geloven resp. zijn op een of andere manier religieus, vooral christelijk. Waaraan je kunt zien dat dat mensen echt niet moreler maakt. Door de week kinderporno produceren en op zondag naar de kerk. ]

"The people who support the child pornography industry come from every background and across the social strata. The majority of child porn consumers are male."(158)

"The relationship between runaways, prostituted youth, and child pornography is significant. Most authorities on child sexual exploitation believe that the three often go hand in hand."(158)

(163) Part IV - The Law and Combating Teenage Prostitution

(165) Chapter 15 - Laws and the Prostitution of Teenagers

"Most federal and state anti-prostitution laws prohibiting the prostitution of teenagers and preteens tend to focus mostly on those soliciting, procuring, pimping, or profiting from such, rather than the prostituted child — who is often viewed as a victim and not an offender."(165)

[Dat lijkt me een goede benadering. Verder volgt een uitwerking van allerlei Amerikaanse wetgeving op dit terrein. Blijkbaar - gezien alle hier verstrekte cijfers - hebben al die wetten niet veel effect. Maar daar wordt verder niet over geschreven. Typisch.]

(175) Part V - Runaway Youth and Prostituted Teens in Other Countries

(177) Chapter 16 - Runaways and Teenage Prostitution Globally

[Dit alles is uiteraard een wereldwijd probleem, waarbij er ook nog eens sprake is van 'sex trafficking' en sekstoerisme.]

"The laws with respect to child prostitution can vary dramatically from country to country, making it difficult to have international cooperation in controlling the sexual exploitation of children. The result is a global tragedy that shows little sign of abating. "(177)

[Maar er zijn allerlei culturele verschillen in de waardering van seks, in de waardering van seks tussen jongeren en volwassenen, en zo verder. Amerikaanse bronnen en organisaties als ECPAT denken vaak dat hun waarden en normen universeel moeten zijn. Zelfs organisaties als de UNCRC en UNICEF staan sterk onder Amerikaanse invloed. Denk aan de ervaringen rondom enjo kōsai in Japan. Gelukkig zijn er landen die zich daar tegen verzetten en hun eigen koers durven varen. Ik vraag me werkelijk af waarom we een land als de VS op dat terrein serieus zouden moeten nemen, gezien de hier gegeven cijfers en gezien hun aandeel in de productie van pornografie en kinderporno. 'Los eerst maar eens de problemen in je eigen land op voordat je je met ons bemoeit', zullen veel regeringen denken. De korte uitwerkingen van de situatie in allerlei landen die volgt leiden ontstellend aan vaagheden - al die cijfers mogen met korrels zout genomen worden.]

"In Japan, where it is legal for adults to have sex with children over the age of twelve, thousands of school girls are involved in prostitution or "financially supported dating.""(184)

[Zo simpel lag dat wettelijk al nooit. En enjo kōsai heeft meestal weinig met prostitutie te maken (gehad) zoals in dit boek beschreven. ]