Margaret Mead Japan China Religie en seks Moral panics Seks en robots Seksuele ontwikkeling Seksualisering Leeftijdverschillen Geweld en misbruik Consent Sexting Prostitutie Pornografie"The young age of the Brothers contrasts with the stereotypical image of male clients who are presumed to be ‘dirty old men with a mean desire toward an innocent, young girl’" Cassini Sai Kwan CHU - Compensated dating - Buying and selling sex in cyberspace, p.49
Cassini Sai Kwan CHU"To date, the phenomenon of CD is under-researched. The limited studies on CD have focused largely on young women who provide CD and there is relatively less known about men who seek CD (Ho, 2003; Lam, 2003; Lee & Shek, 2013). By adding the narratives of clients, this study responds to the lack of research on clients and expands our knowledge surrounding CD, and the current commercial sex market."(3)
[Eindelijk echt onderzoek.]
"CD generally refers to a mutually agreed contract between a female, who is usually a teenage girl, a schoolgirl, or a young woman in her 20s, and a relatively older man. While the girl offers her friendly companionships and possibly sexual favors to the man, the man, in turn, provides monetary and/or social benefits to the girl. The benefits could be in the form of cash, tuition, a nice dinner, temporary shelter, overseas vacation, drugs, or luxury goods such as handbags, clothes, cosmetics, watches, and phones, etc."(4)
"The initial notion of CD did not incorporate the aspect of sexual exchange: Adolescent girls simply provided their companionships to clients. However, the phenomenon of CD has quickly transformed from a nonchalant non-sexual relationship to a relationship in which sex has become the predominant interest. Today, although CD does not automatically equate to sexual exchanges, in many cases, CD does involve a variety of sexual interactions, ranging from kissing, fondling, and oral sex to safe vaginal sex, unsafe vaginal sex, anal sex, and sadomasochism."(4-5)
[De ontwikkeling van gezelschapsdame naar sekswerker. Ik denk dat het desondanks anders is dan prostitutie, wat al de genoemde instanties ook roepen. Dat is een te gemakkelijk etiket waaraan van alles wordt opgehangen wat weinig te maken heeft met CD. Chu geeft ook aan dat de motieven om aan CD te doen als klant zeer verschillend kunnen zijn.]
"Thus, more often than not, the term CD is abstractly considered as an euphemism of teenage prostitution (Ueno, 2003)."(5)
"However, based on the ethnographic data of this study, a majority of CD incidents do not involve coercion, drugs, or other illegal dimensions, and therefore are not exposed to the public. It is the aim of this book to reveal, explore, and analyze these hidden CD cases."(6)
"In Taipei, girls as young as nine years old were already voluntarily offering themselves available for CD (Anonymous, 2011b). Similarly, in Hong Kong it was reported that girls as young as 12 years old were willingly to sell their sexuality for shopping money (Anonymous, 2011a). The fact that the phenomenon of CD uncovered a growing number of young and underage girls who were not only sexually active, but were also selling their sexualities had appalled Hong Kong society, which is, more or less, still affected by the traditional Confucian ideology which tends to repress female sexuality and value female chastity. Moreover, sexuality is traditionally an arena of our most intimate and private expression of self, which ought not to be commodified in the public sphere. The commodification of the sexuality of teenage and underage girls, who have historically been perceived as asexual, provokes even more moral panic. Accordingly, CD is generally perceived as a social illness that reflects the moral decay of modern societies. The society at large not only condemns CD, but also fears it. This fear comes from its threats to sexual morals, standards of behavior, family integrity, and the system of monogamy." [mijn nadruk] (7)
[Veel minderjarigen dus ook die via internet dat spel spelen. Dat kan uiteraard ook gevaarlijk zijn en helemaal verkeerd aflopen.]
"Hence, although individuals may be confident that they are able to direct what would and would not happen in CD, many of them are in fact vulnerable to the sexual, physical, and emotional risks that are latent in CD"(8)
"Because the CD market is so fluid and elusive, it is difficult to agree on a precise figure for the CD population. Yet the increasing trend of CD is undeniable." [mijn nadruk] (9)
"As such, although CD is not legally defined in the law, there are many legal constraints and consequences when enacting and negotiating CD."(10)
[Uiteraard, het gaat vaak om minderjarigen. ]
"This study relies on three macroscopic sociological considerations to analyze the data obtained from in-depth interviews with 30 male clients and 12 female CD providers, cyber- and offline ethnography, and informal conversations with numerous CD participants to provide a dynamic and contextualized insiders’ perspective on the phenomenon of CD. When I began this research I had no personal connection with the CD field."(19)
"Instead of conceptualizing CD as an obnoxious form of men’s sexual exploitation against women and an abhorrent site of men’s oppression, victimization, and degradation of women in a patriarchal system, I conceptualize CD as a site of cultural subversion and a platform of agency where girls can make active use of their sexual autonomy and contemporary sexual order to resist patriarchal control over their sexuality and/or parents’ control. The framework presumes a fluidity of power relationships between CCs and clients rather than an absolute domination of clients over CCs." [mijn nadruk] (20)
"On the contrary, in many instances, CCs are the ones who decide and direct the intensity and authenticity of the emotions and thus the formation of CC–Brother relationships. The longer the CCs have been in the CD field, the more resourceful and competent they seem to become in challenging and subverting the myth of male supremacy. It is in this sense that CCs are viewed as active agents of power, not passive objects of exploitation." [mijn nadruk] (20)
[Twee geweldige citaten. Dit is de goede insteek.]
"Accordingly, the CCs in this study are considered to be autonomous agents who self-determined to engage in CD, which is perceived as a place that can possibly empower women, both economically and socially, and not a site that only dehumanizes women as if they were merely sex tools being used by men to satisfy their desires. Although the female body might be perceived as an objectified instrument, the human nature of woman is not."(20)
"In late modernity, new forms of intimate relationships and love such as pure relationships, cyber-relationships, and confluent love have developed (Giddens, 1992). Love and sex have taken on different social significances and spaces from those in pre-industrial society. One obvious transformation is that in the present day, people fall in and out of love frequently and easily due to the great availability of alternatives and the fragmentations of traditional bonds. The commitment that was traditionally attached to love and sex has vanished as we enter into a modern ‘risky’ society which is full of uncertainties and personal insecurities (Bauman, 2000; Beck, 1992; Giddens, 1992). Non-commercial relationships can be as volatile, precari- ous, fragile, transient, and recreational as commercial ones."(21)
"CD participants therefore conceive CD as a derivative of modern relationships rather than a form of prostitution."(22)
[Precies. ]
"Rather than polarizing the nature of emotion and intimacy around two diametrically opposing positions of authentic/counterfeit, commercial/non-commercial, and bounded/unbounded, which seem to be overly simplistic and monolithic, I propose to conceptualize the nature of emotion and intimacy along a continuum that is flexible and changeable."(22-23)
[Ook al heel genuanceerd. En ze heeft het heel precies en verantwoord aangepakt:]
"Due to the highly sensitive nature of the subject of CD, this study might raise ethical issues. After a thorough review of ethical concerns, the Non-Clinical Faculties Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Hong Kong approved a detailed ethics application on August 26, 2010. This research strictly complied with all ethical standards and was conducted in an ethical manner, as stated in the ethics application. The quality of the data and the reliability of this research were also ensured by adhering to the standards and review procedures relating to academic research throughout the entire research process." [mijn nadruk] (25)
[Hierna beschrijft Chu de stappen in haar onderzoeksproces in detail. ]
"Given the significance of the online CD forums to potential and existing CD participants, it was necessary to observe and analyze the virtual CD community; thus cyber-ethnography was conducted throughout the entire research process, in which I engaged in the online field, gathered data, and interpreted results in a way just like a traditional ethnographer would document a community or other cultural form (Fox & Roberts, 1999; Hine, 2015)."(26)
"Since the materials that I collected and analyzed on the CD forum were publicly available and did not contain personally identifiable information, informed consent was not sought during the course of cyber-ethnography (Salmons, 2016)."(27)
"Thus, the online data collected in this study were indicative, reliable, and valuable."(31)
"A major data source of this study came from in-depth interviews which aimed to elicit rich information from insiders’ perspective on CD, which is captured in the participants’ own words, ideas, insights, feelings, and experiences (Liamputtong, 2009)."(31)
"At this point, I changed my role from a non-participatory observer to a participatory one, yet the degree of my participation was kept to a minimum in the hope that my participation would not disturb the normal CD discourse or provoke rebuke from the CD members."(32)
"In contrast to previous empirical studies on the sex industry, where gaining access to sex workers was often found to be easier than gaining access to male clients (Campbell, 1998; McKeganey, 1994), I found that in this instance, it was easier to get in touch with the clients who were more willing to be interviewed and share their CD experiences than the girls. Such divergence might be for three major reasons."(32)
"As a researcher, I should set aside my own values and standards of judging when conducting inter- views; thus, I did not judge the respondents’ behaviors and attitudes using my own ethical codes when I was interacting with them. Although I would probably deem the same sexual banter as offensive if it happened in my own normative world, I did not feel offended when I was in the CD domain, where sexual banter and fantasies were considered as innocuous."(33)
"30 Brothers and 12 CCs were being interviewed in this study."(35)
"16 interviews with the Brothers and nine with the CCs were conducted on a face-to-face basis. These interviews were carried out in restaurants, cafés, the library at the University of Hong Kong, or at the participants’ residence. 14 interviews with the Brothers and three with the CCs were conducted over the phone because these respondents desired to remain completely anonymous due to the sensitivity of the topic. These respondents felt more comfortable, relaxed, and forthright when they were protected by the physical distance, which gave them complete anonymity."(35)
"The online and offline informal conversations greatly enhanced my rapport, trust, and interaction with CD participants. They helped me to follow up our formal interviews, such as clarifying and reaffirming the ideas, issues, and incidents that they narrated during the formal interviews, and allowed me to update their situations, beliefs, and attitudes. As such, a more comprehensive understanding of the informants and their CD journey were achieved."(38)
"As I became acquainted with more CD participants and gained their trust, they began to invite me to their non-commercial and non-sexual social gatherings such as lunch, dinner, birthday parties, mahjong games, and karaoke at their homes, karaoke clubs, bars, and restaurants. I did not plan to conduct offline participant observation in my original research design because at that time I did not know there were social gatherings amongst CD participants. Even if I had known of the existence of such social events, I would not presume that they would invite me to join. So, when I was invited to join their social gathering for the first time, I immediately decided to incorporate offline participant observation into my research design because it would provide an invaluable opportunity for me to learn how CD participants interact with each other, the nature and transformation of their relationships, and their lived experience in context."(39)
"During these participant observations, neither audio recording nor note-taking was feasible, so after each offline participant observation, I made fieldnotes about the setting of the social gatherings, what had happened, people with whom I had interacted, our major conversations, and my own feelings and thoughts about things that I had observed and heard."(40)
"To get CD information and to negotiate a CD date, individuals must at least have the competence to communicate in Cantonese. The CD world is therefore very much a local community."(48)
"But to me, the result was not surprising at all. It is exactly because Hong Kong adolescents are still infused with conservative values regarding sexuality in both schools and at home that curious young adults are more likely to explore sexual materials on their own. Due to high level of institutional surveillance and social expectation of sexual morality for young adults in Hong Kong, the anonymity of cyberspace provides an ideal and safe social platform for adolescents to explore sexuality without scrutiny." [mijn nadruk] (49)
"The young age of the Brothers contrasts with the stereotypical image of male clients who are presumed to be ‘dirty old men with a mean desire toward an innocent, young girl’ (Ueno, 2003, p. 322)."(49)
[Die zit :-) ]
"There are eight broad motivations for men to buy sex: the ability and the desire to purchase certain sexual acts that are not normally accessible in their conventional relationship; the element of excitement and thrill involved in the illicit or risky nature of commercial sex; the capability to contact women with particular physical features; the inability to establish non-commercial sexual relationships; the fulfillment of sexual urge; the avoidance of emotional attachment or commitment in non-commercial sexual relationship; less pressure on sexual performance and achievement; and the great variety of women that can be contacted (Atchison, Fraser, & Lowman, 1998; Campbell, 1998; McKeganey & Barnard, 1996; Monto, 2000)."(51)
[Herkenbaar en voor de hand liggend, lijkt me. De lijst wordt gebruikt voor de bespreking van haar resultaten met de Brothers.]
"Fellatio was also cited as the most frequently practiced sexual act in commercial sexual encounters and in their most recent transaction with a sex worker."(51)
[De verklaring is opvallend: in een goed huwelijk doe je zoiets niet, want daar is seks nog steeds gericht op voortplanting. Wat een conservatieve context is dat dan. ]
"Similar to clients of prostitution in other parts of the world, Brothers in Hong Kong reported that fellatio and penetrative vaginal sex were the most practiced sex acts during their CD encounters, in which penetrative vaginal sex and fellatio always complimented each other as both sex acts are considered to be part of the normal sexual script in CD."(52)
"Although fellatio is frequently performed in CD, it is not the major reason for Brothers to seek CD because all of the Brothers who received fellatio in CD were able to receive fellatio from their legitimate and regular partners. This might reflect that the sexual values based on a hierarchical valuation of sex acts have changed in late modernity. Fellatio is no longer regarded as ‘bad/abnormal/unnatural sex’, but is regarded as ‘good/normal/natural’ sex by all male and female respondents in this study," [mijn nadruk] (52)
"The narratives of Brothers offer more support for Winick’s (1962) argument that men patronize commercial sex because of the desire for a change in body type from their regular sex partners rather than because of the desire for any specific sex act or a variety of body types that they do not normally get in their conventional relationships.(...) It seems that no matter how beautiful and sexy a man’s regular partner and no matter how mundane the commercial sexual acts, these men still have the desire to have sex with other women, simply because of the thrill of trying something new and the idea of having sex with a different individual."(54)
"The capability of having sex with various women affirms men’s hegemonic masculinity, which is partly defined by their sexual prowess."(54)
[Als dat zo is, zouden we principieel tegen CD moeten zijn, omdat we dat soort masculiniteit niet moeten stimuleren.]
"They felt trapped by the overarching monogamous regime, which limits their potential, development, and self-esteem. Yet they do not want to sacrifice their legitimate monogamous relationships which offer them moral credentials. In order to balance the tension between social obligations and personal aspirations, CD appears to be a perfect solution, since it allows them to experience plastic sexuality and love without jeopardizing their secular obligations and relations."(55)
"Given the significance of the sense of thrill or freshness in CD encounters, it is naïve to presume that the availability of a regular sex partner will preclude the need for CD or for commercial sex in general. Indeed, paid sex will continue to thrive and appeal to men as long as it offers a new (sexual) experience and a sense of adventure for men"(56)
"Although monogamous sex can be non-reproductive and recreational in modern times, it lacks the experimental and explorative factors provided by the episodic encounters with a variety of women. The ‘freshness’ that plastic sexuality offers in CD allows Brothers to move clandestinely outside their everyday context of life and taken-for-granted sex. Such form of experience provides new meaning to their everyday life and identity, which becomes part of the reflexive project of the self."(57)
[Zouden er nu geen vrouwen — de Sisters :-) — zijn die dit zouden willen via CD met een man? Waarom al die eenzijdigheid over de behoeften van mannen?]
"The perceptions of risk and thus the levels of pleasures and excitements gained from different kinds of risk-taking behaviors vary from individual to individual. In this study, no Brother reported such an ‘eroticization of risk’." [mijn nadruk] (58)
"Yet no Brother in this study reported to have experienced this kind of masturbatory fantasy. None of the Brothers perceived CCs as sex workers, let alone dehumanized commodities. As Chap. 7 will show, CC–Brother relations are relatively democratic. The narratives of the Brothers show little support to the sexual objectification of CCs."(60)
[Nee, daar moet je een domme Amerikaan voor zijn.]
"The fear of emotional involvement, commitment, and responsibilities inherent in conventional relationships had been identified as another common rationalization for men to engage in commercial relationships (McKeganey, 1994; Monto, 2000). Likewise, 12 Brothers in this study reported that they patronized CD because they wanted to have sexual encounters without any emotional and moral burdens. For these men, sex and love represent two different arenas that can be demarcated both in theory and in practice." [mijn nadruk] (60)
"The exchange of personal history, identity, or emotional intimacy is unnecessary and therefore absent in such a context. CD allows men to have relatively passionate sex with various women anonymously and absent any emotional responsibility."(61)
"Most Brothers in this study reported that emotional comfort was a more important factor than physical pleasure to sustain their continuation of CD.(...) Clearly, besides sexual enjoyment, there was something else that triggered Brother’s desire for CD – emotional intimacy."(63)
"Even if the involved female party is a CC but not a PTGF, sex does not necessarily have to take place in CD. Ten respondents reported that they had dated a CC without having sex with her although they had made the full payment for sexual services."(64)
"CD takes the commodification of emotional intimacy into the next level. The online communication, the chat on phone, the stroll in a park, the giving of presents, the watching of a movie, the shopping, dining and meeting of each other friends and even family, all mimic the atmosphere and formula of a non-commercial romantic relationship. Brothers value such girlfriend experience, which is the reason why they engage in CD rather than conventional prostitution."(65)
"In Kent’s case, his marital relationship and home failed to provide a source of emotional support. CD thus offered a safe emotional refuge for him."(66)
[Erg goed voorstelbaar.]
"Some male clients patronize prostitutes because they have difficulties in establishing a non-commercial relationship, either because of their physical unattractiveness or disability or psychological factors (Campbell, 1998; Monto, 2000). Frequenting prostitution allow these men to explore and enact their sexualities. It also provides an opportunity for them to create an intimate connection with women that they otherwise are not able to form in regular social setting (Monto, 2000)."(66)
"The notions of ‘one and only one’, ‘happily ever after’, ‘love till death do us part’ of couple relationships have become a myth in modern times. Even marriage cannot provide the assurance and stability of the bond and commitment that they used to have."(68)
"Under the overarching influence of hegemonic masculinity in a patriarchal society, men who are unable to establish successful non-commercial romantic and/or sexual relationships with women are likely to be devalued, leading to them being stereotyped as ‘losers’ (Weatherall & Priestley, 2001). Some people, including sex workers, subscribe to a myth about men who pay sex that they are inadequate and desperate men who fail to attract sexual partners for free. By paying money in exchange for sex, men violate the concept of sexual ‘naturalness’ (Sanders, 2007) and thus jeopardize their masculinity, ability, and social desirability. Despite the ‘loser image’ of men who buy sex is not uncommon, I agree with Armstrong (1978) and Earle and Sharp (2007) that this stereotypical representation can hardly reflect all men who engage in commercial sex. Although some who frequent commercial sex are indeed due to their inability to form non-commercial romantic and/or sexual relationships such that commercial sex is their only platform to associate with women emotionally and sexually, it does not inherently mean that these men are socially, physically, or mentally inadequate." [mijn nadruk] (69)
"19 Brothers (63.3%) had never purchased sex before they took part in CD. Amongst them, all except one had never engaged in sexual activities outside the context of a committed relationship. Two of them did not even have any sexual experience before they involved in CD. What happened in these men’s lives that had broken their traditional moral code, prompted them to step into a taboo sexual world, and practised ‘abnormal’ and ‘condemned’ sexuality?" [mijn nadruk] (78)
"The contexts of engaging in CD are crucial in the sense that they function as a key that opens the ‘door of taboo sex’, which unleashes men to break the regulative monogamous regime to experiment different sexual practices and to enjoy the fluidity of sexuality while preserving their mores through CD."(78)
"Regardless of their experience in purchasing sex, all Brothers reported curiosity as a major motivational factor for them to engage in CD for the first time." [mijn nadruk] (79)
"For the Brothers, GFE in CD is more attractive because it draws upon not only the sexual and erotic compulsion in passionate love, but also elements of conventional courting rituals."(82)
"GFE is ‘surreal’ because romantic love, which is something desired by Brothers, is gradually fragmented and replaced by confluent love in conventional modern intimacy (Giddens, 1992). Men tend to prefer romantic love because of their privileged position in relation to women. The relationship of romantic love has always been imbalanced in gender terms as it is embedded in the division of social spheres and the differentiation of power relations in which women are subordinate and men are dominant. The fostering of romantic love is predominantly the task of women, who unilaterally service men. In confluent love, however, men no longer enjoy their privileged position because this form presumes equality between the two genders such that both men and women should put equal efforts to work at the heterosexual intimate relationship. Some men find confluent love too demanding." [mijn nadruk] (83)
[Maar gegeven voorbeelden spreken ook boekdelen: mannen werken vijf dagen en de vrouwen zitten thuis en zorgen voor de kinderen en stellen eisen in het weekeinde. Dat is een leven vol eisen op het werk en vol eisen thuis.]
"CCs are considered to be ‘normal girls’, who enacted plastic sexuality, rather than sex workers whilst CD is conceptualized as a means to endorse plastic sexuality rather than prostitution. The separation of CD from prostitution, a socially deviant behavior, is particularly important because such segregation has attracted a group of men, especially those who are affected by the negative connotations of prostitution and therefore have never purchased sex before CD, to initiate CD.(...) It is worthwhile to re-emphasize that all Brothers in this study believe CCs are intrinsically different from sex workers." [mijn nadruk] (85)
"All Brothers perceive CCs as normal, ordinary, innocent, and pure teenage girls or young women who do not have sex with just any man who pays, but only with men whom the girls feel comfortable and connected with. Instead of conceptualizing the CCs as ‘dirty’, Brothers commonly endorse the idea of ‘clean’ to describe CCs." [mijn nadruk] (87)
"The ideologies that women’s ‘proper’ place is at home and that women are dependent on the male ‘breadwinner’ have turned around. Women do not necessarily have to rely on men anymore; or at the very least, women are not as dependent on men as before financially and socially. Thus men’s traditional hegemonic masculinity is being threatened.
Men experience crisis in their masculinity not only in the public sphere, but also in the private sphere. Today, marriage is no longer the only destiny for women. In Hong Kong, women have been getting married later, having children later and having fewer children."(92)
"This new demand from women, along with their resistance to the traditional role of an obedient wife (Confucian ideology demands women to obey their husband after marriage), and/or to be a good wife, a good mother and a good daughter-in-law exclusively, have challenged male supremacy as men no longer have absolute power and control over women in the social and interpersonal spheres. Moreover, while men’s ‘rights’ over women have gradually decreased, their ‘obligations’ have increased. Maintaining the traditional hegemonic paradigm of manhood in light of the changing gender structure in late modern Hong Kong society is thus difficult."(94)
"To help them ward off anxiety and avoid the feeling of powerlessness, men need to reclaim the absolute power and control in certain domains. One important constituents of hegemonic masculinity is sexual prowess; CD helps Brothers to strengthen this sexual prowess and thus polish their masculinity.(...) CD is therefore a plausible site for men to re-enact hegemonic masculinity, which allows men’s dominance over women to continue."(94-95)
[Dat lijkt me toch in tegenspraak met hoe de verhoudingen binnen CD liggen, zoals Chu eerder beschreef. Daar heerst eerder gelijkwaardigheid. Andedrs zou je dus inderdaad CD moeten veroordelen, omdat het de traditionele mannenrol in stand houdt. Maar dat lijkt niet zo te zijn.]
"Despite the general public perception that CD is merely an euphemism of adolescent prostitution, none of the Brothers hold this opinion. For the Brothers, prostituting literally means the buying of sex, which is not the crux but merely a derivative of CD; therefore, paying for CD is not the same as prostitution. From Brothers’ perspectives, CD is a contemporary avenue to form intimate relationships with the opposite sex and a new opportunity to experience emotional intimacy and plastic sexuality, rather than a channel to obtain impersonal physical and sexual gratification." [mijn nadruk] (99)
"The following sections discuss men’s personal experiences in each stage of the process of becoming a Brother."(107)
[Ik vind dit niet het meest interessante hoofdstuk. Net zo variabel als de betrokken mannen zijn.]
"Unlike in one-woman brothels and with call girls, Brothers and CCs do not wait for each other in a brothel or in a hotel room. They often meet at a subway station, a mall, a café, or a location near the hotel that they will head to. Meeting outside a commercial boundary mirrors aspects of conventional social relationships. It is a quality that attracts Brothers and separates CD from conventional prostitution."(115)
"In the past, many people have believed that girls are forced into or kidnapped to sell sex against their will, held captive or maltreated by ruthless individuals or vicious members of triad societies (Lethbridge, 1978). However, in recent times, media reports have suggested that many girls sell their sexuality voluntarily (Anonymous, 2012a, 2012b; Chan, 2011). Although the general public is aghast to see how underage girls, high school students, college students, and young women are willingly flocking to sell sex through CD, the social milieu that has facilitated girls to take part in CD has often been overlooked." [mijn nadruk] (127)
"Despite these popular beliefs, materialistic desires and the decline in morality can hardly be regarded as sufficient reasons to explain girls’ initiation in CD. As such, it is necessary to hear the narratives of the girls. Nevertheless, like most other people who sell sex, girls who provide CD tend to avoid the public gaze because commercial sexual activities are still heavily scrutinized and stigmatized in the general society." [mijn nadruk] (128)
"Fortunately, during my online and offline ethnography, I was able to conduct in-depth interviews with 12 CCs and interact with numerous other CCs who are generally hidden from the public gaze. Based on these interviews and ethnographic data, this chapter reveals how girls’ voluntary CD engagement is related less to materialism or morality, and more to the transformation of intimacy and the increasingly fragmented society in late modernity." [mijn nadruk] (128)
"Some CCs consider CD as a lucrative part-time job, offering a way to earn easy, good, and quick money.(...) In other words, as long as a young girl is willing to rent out her time, body, and sexuality, then she can enter into the world of CD simply by a click of a mouse."(128)
"While the concept of chastity was predicated on women but not for men in the past, women are now encouraged to enjoy their sexual autonomy and celebrate their sexualities.(...) Apparently, female sexualities are no longer evolved around reproduction and male pleasures; women’s own sexual pleasures have become increasingly important and they are not afraid to assert it"(131)
"Nevertheless, CCs in this study did not report having body exclusion zone nor sex acts that are performed exclusively in private sex and not in work sex."(133)
"Instead of disassociating work sex from private sex, it appears that CCs dedicated most of their emotional effort in the creation of the so-called girlfriend experience (GFE). Numbing their emotions in work sex seems to be an easy task for many CCs who claimed that they drew a very clear line between love and sex. Moreover, for some CCs, sex is just sex. They do not even differentiate between work sex and private sex"(133)
"Instead of ‘everlasting love’, intimate relationships have become more fragile, insecure, and fluid as the traditional gendered roles are being defied such that women, especially young women, are more reluctant to sacrifice their self-fulfillment for the cultivation of a monogamous relationship.(...) Modern relationships are formed for the purpose of individual self-fulfillment rather than for external criteria, such as marriage, households, kinship or survival as it was in the past (Giddens, 1992)." [mijn nadruk] (133-134)
"Apparently, monogamy is neither a necessity nor a requirement for modern relationships and love, at least for these young women. Plastic sexuality and the diminishing importance of monogamy, in both senses of emotional and sexual exclusiveness, therefore have created less burden for women to engage in CD."(134)
[Ik vraag me af of die benadering als ze ouder worden niet verandert en toch weer richting monogamie en huwelijk gaat. Longitudinaal onderzoek zou helpen.]
"In the following, I will illustrate how new technologies are closely intertwined with the changes of individual sexual attitudes and practices, and how these technological advancements have encouraged girls to take part in CD."(134-135)
"Therefore, despite the public discourse that CD is morally wrong, dangerous, and even fatal, the practice of CD did not subside. On the contrary, it appears that CD has even intensified because of the help of the Internet and various forms of information technology." [mijn nadruk] (135)
"Undoubtedly, new technologies have opened a plethora of new opportunities for young girls to form multiple intimate relationships and engage in sexual adventurism in easier and easier ways:"(137)
"Although a broken family is a major precursor for adolescents to sell sex, it should be noted that not all girls who involve in CD come from broken families. Four CCs in this study come from well-functioning, intact families. However, due to the increasing individualization of modern societies and the growing number of working mothers, the parent–children relationship might not be as strong as it was in the past" [mijn nadruk] (140)
[Zo'n uitdrukking als 'gebroken gezin' is enorm normatief en suggereert dat het intacte kerngezin 'normaal' is. Maar in de praktijk is dat al lang niet meer zo. ]
"Their cases seem to support Lee and Shek’s (2013) claim that inadequate family support is a motivating factor for girls to engage in CD whereas family mutuality (e.g., mutual support, love, and concern among family members) is a protective factor that decreases the probability of girls’ CD participation."(141)
[Ook dit kan gemakkelijk normatief opgevat worden als een verwijt aan gezinnen waar die ondersteuning ontbreekt. Maar alletwee de ouders werken niet zo maar.]
"By participating in CD, girls may develop a sense of self-assurance and obtain the love, affection, and attention that they may not necessarily receive in the realms of their family life."(141)
"The transformation of intimacy and sexuality has led to various consequences, including but not limited to, the younger age of first sexual intercourse, increasing prevalence and acceptance of premarital sex, and the higher number of sexual partners, all of which predispose girls to engage in CD voluntarily."(141)
"Although the earlier age of first sexual intercourse might be seen as a sign of sexual freedom and the flexibility of sexuality, it is also found to be linked with higher possibilities of selling sex."(142)
"Although Jenny, 19 years old, does not have prior sexual experience before she involved in CD, she adopts the notion of plastic sexuality and perceives sex to be a recreational activity rather than an activity connected with love and marriage." [mijn nadruk] (142)
[Dat is ook normatief: waarom zou je uitgaan van 'liefde' en het huwelijk? Wat heeft het huwelijk nu met seks te maken? Dat is zo'n conservatieve insteek.]
"Making use of their female sexuality for money is now framed by some girls as nothing to be ashamed of. Rather, it has become normalized as a rational choice. The new female sexual autonomy and plastic sexuality seem to have created a new channel to economic resources for teenage girls and young women in a society where economic possibilities for them are limited." [mijn nadruk] (143)
"While essentially any individual can practise plastic sexuality, it has particularly significant health consequences for women, especially adolescent girls and underage girls, who might be unable to refuse to have unprotected sex.(...) The condition may be exacerbated if the girls do not have adequate sexual health knowledge to protect themselves. Adolescents in Hong Kong remain to demonstrate a low level of sexual knowledge despite the rising trend of sexual initiation at an earlier age, and the prevalence of premarital sex and the notion of sex as a recreational activity" [mijn nadruk] (143)
[En hoe zou dat nu komen? Ouders en scholen en instanties gaan nog steeds uit van conservatieve ideeën als het huwelijk. Voorlichting is daar ongetwijfeld nog op gericht. En het idee "je praat niet over seks" is dus ook nog sterk aanwezig.]
"This might be because formal sex education programs that cover sensitive and controversial issues about sexuality are not fully implemented in Hong Kong, which may further intensify the negative social effects of the practice of plastic sexuality amongst adolescents."(143-144)
[Precies dat. En verder ook de slechte situatie rondom abortus met artsen die incompent zijn ook nog, zoals ze verder uitlegt.]
"Three out of four CCs who were pregnant had their first pregnancy below the age of 16. Continuing their pregnancy would reveal not only their illicit sexual behaviors, but also the identity of their sexual partners who would be prosecuted for sex with a minor according to Hong Kong law. As such, abortion appeared to be the lesser evil from the underage girls’ perspective." [mijn nadruk] (147)
[Dat is dan ook slechte wetgeving gebaseerd op het idee dat minderjarige jongeren niet aan seks willen doen en zeker niet met oudere partners. We moeten ze beschermen, hè? Met alle ellende van dien.]
"Many girls generally share Candy’s sentiment that abortion ‘is a common and logical practice. A lot of girls have had it!’ Such a perception is dangerous and should be corrected by implementing a more comprehensive program of sexual education at school and society in general."(147)
[Dat zal zeker helpen, maar toch is dit een normatief oordeel. Waarom is een nuchter niet emotioneel idee over abortus gevaarlijk als de uitvopering van abortussen geaccepteerd en veilig is?]
"Under the traditional code of female sexuality, women were pressured to conform to virginity, domesticity, and monogamy for the purpose of reproduction such that there was a great demarcation between the sexual conduct of women who sell sex and women who do not. This demarcation has gradually dwindled as the meanings and practice of sexuality and intimacy have transformed to being more flexible, recreational, non-marital, non-monogamous, volatile, and even emotionally indifferent. Clearly, the principles of the notion and practices of plastic sexuality are not consistent with traditional moral principles of Chinese societies. Hence, there are moral panics, tensions, and controversial behaviors and attitudes resulting from the effects of the transformation of intimacy and plastic sexuality. CD practice is one of them." [mijn nadruk] (148)
"Abortion, whether legal or illegal, certainly increases the risk of women’s sexual and psychological health."
[In de huidige context, misschien.]
"One common myth about commercial sex is that it is only delimited by the mode of a business-like contract, where sex is seen as a commodity or a product for exchange, and where the provider–client relationship is completely devoid of any kind of deeper emotional interaction or reciprocity."(153)
[Maar dat is dus niet zo, zoals Chu al heeft laten zien.]
"Another related myth is that clients seek out commercial sex entirely for sexual release and physical pleasure."(153)
[En ook dat is niet zo, zoals gebleken is.]
"I will illustrate how Brothers desire more than a limited, yet real and reciprocal erotic connection, and how CC–Brother relationships can transform from bounded, seller–buyer relationships to unbounded, genuine interpersonal relationships, close friendships, and even conventional romantic relationships, through the narratives of both Brothers and CCs. In addition, this chapter reveals how online relationships in virtual CD communities can transform into offline friendships"(155)
"The fantasy of GFE is pervasive amongst Brothers. All Brothers in this study prefer CD to conventional prostitution such as that experienced in one- woman brothels or massage parlors because CD is a very specific form of commercial sex that is designed and enacted to be experienced as a conventional romantic encounter. CCs often demonstrate a sense of caring, consideration, and romance that Brothers prefer and perceive as the highlight and benchmark for the quality of their CD experience (Sanders, 2008b)." [mijn nadruk] (155)
"While some Brothers experience GFE as an authentic mutual pleasure, others are not overwhelmed and disguised by the myth of mutuality."(158)
"Numerous Brothers’ accounts have shown that romance and intimacy – whether authentic or illusionary – play an essential role in their pleasure in paying for CD. Yet it is not uncommon for men to experience disappointment and some negative feelings after a passionate CD encounter."(160)
"Although GFE offers emotional fulfillment and satisfies Brothers’ yearning for a passionate interaction in general, it is only momentary. The intense, yet ephemeral relations may leave some Brothers longing even more for a conventional intimate relationship."(161)
"Like the sex worker–client relationships in traditional forms of prostitution, CC–Brother relationships can transform to interpersonal or even romantic relationships (Sanders, 2005b; Warr & Pyett, 1999)."(162)
"For some CD participants, both Brothers and CCs, their CD world and non-CD worlds have increasingly merged together because they constantly engage in activities that are outside the bounded commercial CD context with other CD members. Fifteen Brothers and six CCs reported that they had gathered with other CCs and Brothers as a group of friends during their leisure time for non-commercial and non-sexual purposes, just as any other groups of friends would have socialized in a conventional setting."(169)
"Supporting the findings of Sanders (2005b, 2008b), Warr and Pyett (1999), and Peng (2007), five CCs and 19 Brothers in this study have developed genuine romantic feelings for their clients and CCs, respectively. Amongst them, four girls and 11 men have successfully transformed a bounded, commercial CC–Brother relationship into an unbounded, non-commercial intimate relationship. Some of them have even developed into a cohabiting relationship and one of them has resulted in marriage."(173)
[Voornamelijk samenvattend. De conclusies zijn in feite al gegeven.]
"Yet CD has still aroused much moral concern because it illuminates the growing trend of adolescents having recreational sex at an earlier age. Under the influence of traditional Chinese culture, sex remains a sensitive domain within the educational and parenting systems. Adolescents are expected to be asexual subjects. Adolescents, particularly females, who express sexual interests are regarded as deviant individuals characterized by moral problems and even psychological disorder and crime (Ho & Tsang, 2002). However, this perception is gradually being defied as the concepts of plastic sexuality and modern intimacy have progressively influenced individuals’ sexual practice and attitudes. Although the notions affect men as well as women, the impacts are greater for women than men for two principal reasons. First, while men have always enjoyed a higher level of sexual freedom than women such that men are more easily condoned to have multiple sexual partners and recreational sex, female sexuality has always been repressed and restricted to procreative sex, both historically and culturally, in Chinese societies. As such, once sexuality is being liberated for both men and women, women would experience a more drastic change under the transformation of intimacy." [mijn nadruk] (190)
"Although the phenomenon of CD began in Japan in the early 1990s, and it has become a growing trend in other Asian countries such as Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea, and some parts of more modernized and prosperous parts of China, including but not limited to Shanghai and Canton provinces, which have undergone rapid economic and social changes in recent decades, there are several aspects that are culturally distinct to CD in Hong Kong. First, the phenomenon of CD is more likely to become normalized among young adults in Hong Kong than those in other East Asian countries because, compared to other East Asian countries, Hong Kong are more exposed to and influenced by the notions of plastic sexuality and pure relationships, probably because of its history of British colonial rule and its high level of Westernization (Brewer, 1999)."(195-196)
"Instead of the general perception that CD is a form of sexual exploitation of teenage sexuality by male “predators”, individuals who have already participated in CD or who are considering the possibility of engaging in CD regard it as a new opportunity to explore their sexuality and/or an easy way to earn quick and good money. Many CD participants normalize CD and consider CD to be a mutually beneficial relationship."(197)