(v) Introduction

Geeft een overzicht van de inhoud. Waarbij aangegeven wordt waar nieuwe gegevens (vanuit nieuwe bronnen) worden verstrekt.

"An interpretation of facts and systems is proposed, on the basis of an evaluation of the socio-economic, political, and cultural background, as well as of the personality of the pioneers, their environment, and the role of certain patients."(v)

"However, acceptance has never been as un­ equivocal as in the case of physical, chemical, or physiological discoveries, not to mention the fact that the teachings of the newer dynamic schools are to a great extent mutually incompatible . As another conspicuous feature, the current accounts of the history of dynamic psychiatry contain more errors, gaps, and legends than the history of any other science." [mijn nadruk] (v)

"It [beginnen met de oudste geschiedenis - GdG] also has theoretical interest because we find in primitive healing evidences of subtle therapeutic techniques, many of which are similar to the most modern psychotherapeutic methods, whereas other ones are without known parallels today. Ten varieties of primitive healing are thus reviewed and compared with modern methods." [mijn nadruk] (vi)

De evolutie van de dynamische psychiatrie wordt ook in verband gebracht met culturele stromingen als de Verlichting, de Romantiek, het Positivisme.

"Other vicissitudes in the evolution of dynamic psychiatry are interpreted as manifestations of the struggles between great cultural trends: the Baroque, Enlightenment, Romanticism , Positivism. Striking similarities are shown between the basic concepts of Freud and Jung, on the one side, and certain concepts of Romantic philosophers and psychiatrists on the other, including the late-comers of Romanticism, Fechner and Bachofen."(vii)

Daarover gaat hoofdstuk 4. In hoofdstuk 5 wordt nog weer eens het accent gelegd op de invloed van Nietzsche en de Neo-Romantiek (viii). Met name Jung lijkt door Nietzsche geïnspireerd te zijn, met name door het intensief lezen van Also sprach Zarathustra (x).

[Ik ga inderdaad dit boek lezen om de invloeden van die culturele stromingen die de auteur noemt zoals Nietzsche en de Romantiek, maar ook om een idee te krijgen van de sociaal-economische situatie. Het gaat me veel minder om preciese kennis van alle dynamische theorieën.]

(3) 1 - The Ancestry of Dynamic Psychotherapy

"Certain medical or philosophical teachings of the past, as well as certain older healing methods, offer a surprisingly high degree of insight into what are usually considered the most recent discoveries in the realm of the human mind."(3)

Ellenberger verwijst hier naar cultureel-antropologisch en historisch materiaal over de ziekten die er bij 'primitieve' volkeren waren en hoe ze door priesters / sjamanen / medicijnmannen / en zo verder werden bestreden. Hij gaat een en ander na aan de hand van de indeling in tabel 1-1:

1. Het met de mond er uit zuigen van het ziekteverwekkende object lijkt universeel te zijn. Wat hier beschreven wordt laat zien hoe belangrijk het geloof van de zieke in de heler / medicijnman is.

[Met andere woorden: overdracht en tegenoverdracht maken deel uit van dit soort processen. Logisch, vind ik, omdat ze wat mij betreft een rol spelen in alle communicatie tussen mensen. Er zijn altijd mensen geweest die 'ziek' of 'gek' waren - de grens is lang niet altijd duidelijk - en die soms wel en soms niet genezen werden door 'dokters'. Vertrouwen van de kant van de 'zieke' is daarbij altijd weer erg belangrijk. Deskundigheid, overtuigingskracht, het vermogen om vertrouwen te wekken, suggestie van de kant van de genezer ook. Het is de interactie waar het om gaat.]

2. Dit is gebaseerd op het idee dat de ziel het lichaam kan verlaten zoals bijvoorbeeld in de slaap of door een sterke schrikreactie. De oplossing is voor de hand liggend: de ziel terugbrengen. Als je even afziet van de culturele achetrgrond is dat in feite ook wat psychotherapie bij patiënten doet.

"The soul, for example, may lose its way, be injured, or be separated from the body if the sleeper is suddenly awakened, while the soul is far away. It may get caught and detained by evil spirits during its wanderings, and may also leave the body in a waking state, especially after a sudden fright. Finally, it may also be forcibly removed from the body by ghosts, demons, or sorcerers."(7)

3. Bezetenheid kan er zijn in slapende en wakende toestand, vrijwillig en gedwongen, spontaan en kunstmatig, openlijk en latent. Het kunnen geesten zijn van dieren, voorouders, of goden. Zie p. 21 en 22 voor een vergelijking van exorcisme en psychotherapie.

"Exorcism has been one of the foremost healing procedures in the Mediterranean area and is still in use in several countries; it is of particular interest to us because it is one of the roots from which, historically speaking, modern dynamic psychotherapy has evolved." [mijn nadruk] (13)

[Tja, dat zegt alles. Het onbewuste als de moderne ziel.]

"Exorcism is a struggle between the exorcist and the intruding spirit - often a long, difficult, and desperate struggle that may continue for days, weeks, months, or even years before a complete victory can be achieved. Not infrequently does the exorcist meet with defeat; moreover, he is in danger himself of becoming infested with the very spirit he has just expelled from the patient."(14)

"Demoniac possession has been a frequent occurrence for many centuries in the Middle East and in Europe, and it is characteristic that its symptoms and the rites of exorcism are much the same among Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans."(16)

"The history of the Western world during the past twenty centuries abounds with stories of possession - either individual or collective, sometimes in epidemic form - and with stories of exorcism. (...) It is no wonder then that the last manifestations of possession and exorcism are to be found in those settings that, for one reason or another, were opposed to the spirit of the Enlightenment ..." [mijn nadruk] (18)

4. Mensen ervaren het overtreden van bepaalde normen als zondig, als iets waaraan ze dood kunnen gaan, en gaan dan ook dood.

"Similar instances have been reported from Uganda and Central Africa , and the conspicuous fact is that, in such cases, Western medicine is almost powerless, whereas the medicine man is able to achieve a surprisingly rapid and complete recovery in patients on the verge of death."(23)

"A comprehensive survey of data relative to the confession of sins was made by Raffaele Pettazzoni, who emphasized that among most primitive populations the concept of "sin" is identical with that of "breach of taboo."" [mijn nadruk] (23)

De - meestal publieke - bekentenis haalt het schuldgevoel eventueel weg en leidt tot rust.

"The concept of disease as a punishment for sin was predominant among the Semitic civilizations of the ancient Orient. Sin was then clearly defined as a voluntary offense against moral and religious laws. Many diseases, among them emotional and mental illness, were thought to be the result of sin. Confession also existed as a means of relief, and often of healing." [mijn nadruk] (24)

Gefrustreerde onvervulde wensen kunnen ook tot ziekte leiden [niet in het schema opgenomen - GdG]. Heimwee en liefdesverdriet zijn hier de duidelijkste voorbeelden. Tegemoet komen aan die wensen kan helpen.

"Nineteenth-century psychiatry excluded these two conditions from its nosology and did not ascribe much importance to frustrated wishes as a psychogenic factor. Dynamic psychiatry has re-emphasized their meaning, which primitive medicine had at times well understood."(25)

Maar ook: gebrek aan sociale erkenning of aan erotiek of aan bezit of aan de mogelijkheid tot zelfontplooiing kunnen frustreren.

"Who would treat a patient by giving him all that he would wish for? However, the healing effects of the gratification of desires is perhaps underestimated today." [mijn nadruk] (26)

[Het voorgaande over zonde en taboes en zo wijzen dus al vroeg op de normatieve context van geestelijke problemen of van het later behandelde 'pathogene geheim'. Je houdt voor jezelf wat sociaal gezien niet door de beugel kan en lijdt eronder. Je zou het onbewuste dus kunnen zien als dat wat mensen angstvallig geheim houden en liever vergeten.
En wat betreft die laatste alinea: nog erg voorzichtig uitgedrukt, ik denk dat het een erg grote rol speelt in een wereld waarin wel erg vaak sprake is van 'uitgestelde behoeftebevrediging'. Inderdaad, ook seksuele gratificatie zou in veel gevallen kunnen helpen.]

Conclusies over 'primitieve geneeswijzen'

Er bestaan eindeloos veel ceremoniële geneeswijzen. Het succes van die geneeswijzen moet - evenals het ontstaan van de ziekten - gezien worden tegen de achtergrond van de samenleving / groep waarbinnen geleefd wordt en dus ook tegen de achtergrond van het (bij)geloof wat daar heerst.

Er zijn vele manieren waarop mensen lijden, er zijn vele manieren waarop mensen van hun lijden verlost kunnen worden, zo blijkt. Ellenberg noemt ook nog schoonheid-therapie, het ceremonie-karakter van veel geneeswijzen (waarbij dus de hele stam aandacht aan je besteedt), de rol die suggestie en hypnose spelen.

"There is no doubt, either, that certain medicine men are able to make a conscious and purposeful use of hypnosis, as exemplified by the ceremonies surrounding the initiation of Australian medicine men. [mijn nadruk] "(34)

"Suggestion is probably by far the most important agent at work in the practice of magic. A magic procedure may actually attain its goal because the individual submitting to it firmly believes in its efficacy; the magician believes in his own power, and the entire community believes in the existence and efficacy of magic art because this art is felt to be necessary for social cohesion." [mijn nadruk] (35)

"There are many types of magicians and innumerable varieties of magical and countermagical practices. Much of it still survives in the popular medicine of civilized countries. A systematic investigation of magical medicine will no doubt help us to better understand those manifestations that we call suggestion and autosuggestion." [mijn nadruk] (37)

Ellenberg beschrijft ook meer rationele praktijken in de 'primitieve geneeskunde' als baden, zweten, massage, medicijnen.

"It is well known that modern pharmacopoeia derives a large number of its most active drugs from primitive medicine."(37)

"In the presence of a disease, especially a severe or dangerous one, the patient places his hopes and confidence in the person of the healer rather than in his medications and other healing techniques. It would therefore seem that the healer's personality is the principal agent of the cure, in addition to any necessary skill or knowledge." [mijn nadruk] (38)

"The healer may or may not be proficient in the treatment of fractures, in the knowledge of drugs, in massage, and other empirical treatments that are often left to lay healers. But his most important methods of healing are of a psychological nature, whether it be a matter of treating a physical or a mental illness. In primitive societies, the distinction between body and mind is not as clear-cut as in our society, and the medicine man may well be considered to be a psychosomatician." [mijn nadruk] (39)

Andere geneeswijzen

"Certain techniques of primitive medicine were taken over by the new temple medicine. (Exorcism is one example.) Others were probably worked out and developed in the temples (such as the cures in the Asklepeia). Lay medicine also underwent an autonomous development, but showed itself more proficient in the treatment of physical diseases than in the treatment of emotional conditions. Thus arose the separation of priestly medicine and medicine proper, the first being represented by the healing priest, the latter by the physician." [mijn nadruk] (40)

Daarnaast noemt Ellenberg de verlossende werking van de 'mental training' in grote godsdiensten als boeddhisme en christendom zowel als in bepaalde filosofieën als het platonisme, stoïcisme, epicurisme (het stoïcisme is terug te vinden in de training van de adleriaanse en existentialistische therapie). Denk aan yoga, meditatie.

"There is no doubt that such practices also exerted a psychotherapeutic action in many individuals. It has been contended that Stoicism showed certain features that can be found in the Adlerian and existentialist schools of today, that some of the characteristics of Plato's Academy can be found in the Jungian School, whereas Epicurus aimed at the removal of anxiety and has been compared in that regard to Freud."(42)

[En zo is het nog steeds. Dat is veel belangrijker dan alle theoretische opvattingen. Er zijn dus duizenden manieren van verlossing / helen en ze zijn allemaal ooit toegepast: bedevaart, bidden, meditatie, dans, orgiastische riten etc. etc.. Al naar gelang achtergrond, belangstelling, en zo verder kan iedereen wel een therapie voor zichzelf vinden om moeilijke emoties aan te kunnen.]

Ontwikkeling richting dynamische psychiatrie

"Protestant reformers abolished compulsory confession, but it was among Protestant communities that a new practice and tradition arose, the "Cure of Souls" (Seelsorge). There were many aspects and varieties of "Cure of Souls". One of them is of particular importance. Certain Protestant ministers were considered as being endowed with a particular spiritual gift that enabled them to obtain the confession of a disturbing secret from distressed souls and to help those persons out of their difficulty. These clerical men maintained the tradition of absolute secrecy, though it was not imposed on them with the same rigidity as in the Catholic Church." [mijn nadruk] (43-44)

"There came a time when the knowledge of the pathogenic secret and its treatment fell into the hands of laymen. When this happened is not known, but it may have been among the early magnetists ..." [mijn nadruk] (44)

"The notion of the pathogenic secret gradually became known to a wider public. Evidence may be found in a series of literary works throughout the nineteenth century."(45)

"It seems that the first medical man who systematized the knowledge of the pathogenic secret and its psychotherapy was the Viennese physician, Moritz Benedikt. In a series of publications that appeared between 1864 and 1895, Benedikt showed that the cause of many cases of hysteria and other neuroses resides in a painful secret, mostly pertaining to sexual life, and that many patients can be cured by the confession of their pathogenic secrets and by the working out of the related problems." [mijn nadruk] (46)

Een en ander zien we terug bij Janet en Freud en Pfister, hoewel Jung degene was die de meeste aandacht schonk aan 'ziekteverwekkende geheimen'.

"To those who have known him per­sonally or carefully read his writings, it is clear that psychoanalysis was to Pfister to a certain extent a rediscovery and a perfecting of the traditional "Cure of Souls." Pfister always thought of his psychoanalytic practice as part of his pastoral work."(46)

Wanneer je wetenschappelijke therapieën vergelijkt met 'primitieve' geneeswijzen (zie het schema) dan zijn de wetenschappelijke rationeel, nuchter, afstandelijk.

"Historically, modern dynamic psychotherapy derives from primitive medicine, and an uninterrupted continuity can be demonstrated between exorcism and magnetism, magnetism and hypnotism, and hypnotism and the modern dynamic schools.
By referring to the above table, we can see that certain features of modern dynamic therapy point to an unmistakable affinity with primitive healing."(48)

(53) 2 - The emergence of dynamic psychiatry

Waar bepaalde tradities en (bij)geloof verdwijnen, waar er een verlichting optreedt, waar de maatschappelijke omstandigheden veranderen, veranderen ook de geneeswijzen. Vandaar de strijd tussen J.J.Gassner (exorcist en heler) en F.A.Mesmer die in 1775 in het voordeel van de laatste werd beslist. En daarmee kwam de dynamische psychologie op. Het leven van beide personen wordt door Ellenberger samengevat.

"However, the overthrow of a declining tradition does not in itself inaugurate a new one. Mesmer's theories were rejected, the organization he had founded was short-lived, and his therapeutic techniques were modi­fied by his disciples. Nonetheless, he had provided the decisive impulse toward the elaboration of dynamic psychiatry, even though it would be a century before the findings of his disciples were to be integrated into the official corpus of neuropsychiatry by Charcot and his contemporaries."(53)

Het leven en de activiteiten van Gassner

"No one ever questioned Gassner's absolute piety, his lack of pretentions, and his unselfishness. Unfortunately for him, he had come too late , and the controversies that had been raging around him had a much more important object: the struggle between the new Enlightenment and the forces of tradition. Gassner's downfall prepared the way for a healing method that retained no ties with religion and satisfied the requirements of an "enlightened" era. Curing the sick is not enough; one must cure them with methods accepted by the community." [mijn nadruk] (57)

Het leven en de activiteiten van Mesmer

"In these accounts Mesmer is shown as a man dominated by the fixed idea that he had made an epoch-making discovery that the world ought to accept immediately, even before it could be fully revealed . He wanted to keep his secret to himself as long as he pleased and to make it known only when it became convenient for him. His doctrine of animal magnetism, however, should remain his permanent and exclusive property; no one was allowed to add, modify, of subtract anything without his permission. He demanded absolute devotion from his disciples, although he did not feel the need to reciprocate by showing them gratitude, and he broke with anyone who manifested independent ideas. Mesmer felt as though he was living in a world of enemies who were continually trying to steal, distort, or suppress his discovery." [mijn nadruk] (68)

[Ook in dit opzicht absoluut een voorloper van Sigmund Freud.]

Mesmer's theorie van het 'animale magnetisme' wordt vervolgens beschreven. Om cliënten te helen is het noodzakelijk om eerst een relatie met hen op te bouwen ("tuning in"). Vervolgens worden door de magnetiseur crises opgeroepen waarbij de latente ziektes manifest worden. Pas dan is behandeling mogelijk.

"It is an open question as to whether Mesmer was a precursor of dynamic psychiatry or its actual founder. Any pioneer is always the successor of previous ones and the precursor of others. There is no doubt, however, that the development of modern dynamic psychiatry can be traced to Mesmer's animal magnetism, and that posterity has been remarkably ungrateful to him." [mijn nadruk] (69)

Puységur en het nieuwe magnetisme

Marquis de Puységur liet de theorie van een magnetische vloeistof vallen, toen hij iemand in 'hypnose' bracht (zo zou het pas later genoemd worden). Hij schoof wat er gebeurde op de wil van de magnetiseur: de cliënt raakt in een toestand van verhoogde bewustheid, kan zijn eigen ziekte herkennen en de geneeswijze aangeven, volgt ook de opdrachten van de magnetiseur, maar kan zich na afloop niets van de sessie herinneren. Het is een soort slaapwandelen, vond hij (somnabulisme). Het belang van de relatie tussen cliënt en magnetiseur werd steeds meer gezien.

"From that day on [van het succes van Puysegur - GdG] a slowly growing rift occurred between the orthodox Mesmerists who clung to the crisis and the fluid theory, and the followers of Puysegur who concentrated their attention on artificial somnambulism, adopting a psychological theory, and eventually simplifying the technique of mesmerization."(72)

In Frankrijk hadden die nieuwe ideeën o.a. door de Franse Revolutie van 1789 een wat wilde ontwikkeling: ineens was er een negatieve beoordeling van het magnetisme en van haar vertegenwoordigers. Rond 1825 overleed Puységur en werd bijna vergeten, al had hij de draad wel weer voorzichtig opgepakt.

"Charles Richet rediscovered Puységur in 1884 and showed that most of what his illustrious contemporaries believed to have discovered in the field of hypnosis was already contained in Puységur's writings."(74)

"After the temporary arrest caused by the Revolution, the development of animal magnetism took a different course in France and in Germany.
In France. as we have seen, magnetism was taken up again a round 1805 by Puységur, who published several works on it. Together with those of Mesmer, they were considered for at least one generation as the great classics on the subject. But, beginning around 1812, new men were introduc­ing new concepts and new methods into the study of magnetism."(75)

Het ging om Abbé Faria, JPF Deleuze, A. Bertrand, Noizet.

"Janet, who held Bertrand 's work in the highest esteem, considered him to be the true initiator of the scientific study of hypnosis." [mijn nadruk] (76)

"Noizet's teaching was to be taken over by Liébeault, and in this manner, Faria's technique eventually became the general method applied by the Nancy School. Both Bertrand and Noizet emphasized the fact that the human mind conceives of thoughts and reasonings of which we are not aware and which can be recognized only through the effects they produce.
Among the French students of magnetism, there were also men such as Charpignon, Teste, Gauthier, Lafontaine, Despine, Dupotet, Durand (de Gros) . and others who deserve the highest credit, although they are largely forgotten today. Janet protested against the name of "precursors," which has been disdainfully given to them. These men, he said (as well as Puyséegur and the early Mesmerists), were the actual founders of the science of hypnotism; they had described all its phenomena right from the start and nothing substantial had been added during the nineteenth century.
These men had understood, for example, that the rapport was the central phenomenon in magnetism and somnambulism and that its influence extended far beyond the actual seance. Posthypnotic suggestions had already been described in 1787 and were well known to Faria and Bertrand. The reciprocal influence between the patient and the magnetizer was soon included in the concept of rapport. Early magnetizers warned against the danger inherent in the powerful interpersonal attraction issuing from the rapport, al though they knew that this influence also had its limitations. Tardif de Montrevel emphasized in 1785 that the subject in magnetic sleep was well able to resist any immoral commands that an unscrupulous magnetizer might give. They investigated the vicissitudes of individual treatments, explained how to start and terminate them and warned of the dangers of too frequent seances and of too prolonged treatment. They also investigated various types of "magnetic" conditions, including cases of dual personality. The influence of mind over body and the possibility of curing many organic diseases through magnetism were a matter of course for them. They often met with one another in work groups and carefully recorded a journal of their treatments." [mijn nadruk] (76-77)

[Inderdaad: indrukwekkende inzichten.]

Toch maakten al die mensen geen echte indruk in Frankrijk, de medische stand wees het af. In Duitsland trok het mesmerisme wel veel belangstelling en kreeg er ook officiële erkenning. Het was met name populair bij de Romantici die het universum als een levend organisme zagen en Mesmer's magnetische vloeistof als een bewijs daarvoor; verder hadden ze belangstelling voor buitenzintuiglijke waarneming zoals die in een hypnotische toestand mogelijk leek te zijn; het idee was dat communicatie met de wereldziel mogelijk zou zijn via een zesde zintuig. Personen: Kluge, Justinus Kerner, en de openbaringen van Katharina Emmerich en 'zieneres' Friedericke Hauffe waarvoor Görres, Von Baader, Schelling, Von Schubert, David Strauss en Friedrich Schleiermacher belangstelling hadden, en waarover Kerner een studie schreef. (1827-1829).

"The interest raised by Kerner's observations of the "seeress" resulted in a flood of letters and reports concerning similar phenomena. Kerner and his friends published much of this material in the Blatter von Prevorst (1831-1839) and in the Magikon (1840-1853). These were probably the first periodicals devoted mainly to parapsychology."(81)

De invloed van het magnetisme werd na 1850 minder onder invloed van het positivisme en in het algemeen door de groeiende wetenschappelijke rationaliteit. Buiten Frankrijk en Duitsland ontwikkelde het zich een stuk langzamer omdat bepaalde groepen (bijvoorbeeld de medische stand) zich ertegen verzetten. Successen en mislukkingen wisselden elkaar af.

"But as Mesmer's disciples became more numerous, enthusiastic, and fanatic, the movement deviated more from its initial norm and fell into discredit: It mingled increasingly with wild speculation, occultism, and, at times, with quackery. At this point unexpected developments occurred, subsequent to the advent of spiritism. To follow these developments, we must turn to the United States of America."(83)

In de USA - waar het magnetisme al vroeg een plaats vond - had het spiritisme dat een tijd lang in de mode was - invloed op het ontstaan van parapsychologisch onderzoek (Richet; Myers and Guerney).

"The advent of spiritism was an event of major importance in the history of dynamic psychiatry, because it indirectly provided psychologists and psychopathologists with new approaches to the mind. Automatic writing, one of the procedures introduced by the spiritists, was taken over by scientists as a method of exploring the unconscious."(85)

[In principe niet zo heel veel anders dan de vrije associatie.]

Dat zorgde voor een opleving van de belangstelling voor de hypnose ook na 1880 - nadat alles dus een tijd uit de gratie was geweest. In Frankrijk zien we dat terug bij de Nancy-school van A.A. Liébault en van Hippolyte Bernheim en bij de Salpêtrière-school van J.M.Charcot.

"In the period from 1860 to 1880, magnetism and hypnotism had fallen into such disrepute that a physician working with these methods would irretrievably have compromised his scientific career and lost his medical practice."(85)

Liébault was een van de weinigen die openlijk aan hypnose deden. Bernheim werd een bewonderaar en leerling en leider van de 'Nancy School'.

"Bernheim publicly became Liebeault's admirer, pupil, and devoted friend, and introduced his methods in his university's medical hospital. Liebeault suddenly acquired fame as a great medical man; his book [over hypnose - GdG] was rescued from oblivion and was widely read."(87)

"As time went on Bernheim made less and less use of hypnotism, contending that the effects that could be obtained by this method were equally obtainable by suggestion in waking state, a procedure that the Nancy School now termed 'psychotherapeutics'."(87)

"In its wider sense the Nancy School was a loose group of psychiatrists who had adopted Bernheim's principles and methods. Among them were Albert Moll and Schrenck-Notzing in Germany, Kratft-Ebing in Austria, Bechterev in Russia, Milne Bramwell in England, Boris Sidis and Morton Prince in the United States, and a few others who deserve special mention."(88)

Zoals Frederik van Eeden en Van Renterghem in Nederland of Auguste Forel in Zwitserland.

"Sigmund Freud was one of the many visitors to Nancy and spent a few weeks there with Bernheim and old Liébeault in 1889. He was impressed with Bernheim's contention that the posthypnotic amnesia was not as complete as was generally assumed. Through concentration and with the help of skillful questioning, Bernheim could bring the patient to remember what he had experienced under hypnosis."(88-89)

"Contrary to the Nancy School, the Salpêtrière School was strongly organized and headed by a powerful figure, that of the great teacher Jean-Martin Charcot (1835-1893), a neurologist who had come belatedly to the study of certain mental phenomena."(89)

"During the years 1870-1893, Charcot was considered to be the greatest neurologist of his time."(89)

Door Charcot's onderzoek op de Salpétrière werd hypnose weer geaccepteerd en het onderwerp van allerlei publicaties. Hij kon demonstreren dat allerlei lichamelijke kwalen (zoals verlammingen) een psychische oorzaak hadden.

"In the last years of his life, Charcot realized that a vast realm existed between that of clear consciousness and that of organic brain physiology. His attention was drawn to faith healing, and in one of his last articles he stated that he had seen patients going to Lourdes and returning healed from their diseases. He tried to elucidate the mechanism of such cures and anticipated th at an increased knowledge of the laws of 'faith healing' would result in great therapeutic progresses."(91)

Er volgen wat beschrijvingen van Charcot van ooggetuigen. Léon Daudet schrijft:

"He was very humane; he showed a profound compassion for animals and forbade any mention of hunters and hunting in his presence.
A more authoritarian man I have never known, nor one who could put such a despotic yoke on people around him.(...)
He could not stand contradiction, however small. If someone dared contradict his theories, he became ferocious and mean and did all he could to wreck the career of the imprudent man unless he retracted and apologized."(92)

[Al weer zo iemand. Freud is in goed gezelschap.]

"Among Charcot's disciples were Bourneville, Pitres, Joffroy, Cotard, Gilles de Ia Tourette, Meige, Paul Richer, Souques, Pierre Marie, Raymond, Babinski. There is hardly one French neurologist of that time who had not been a student of Charcot."(93-94)

"In Vienna he was well acquainted with Meynert and Moritz Benedikt."(94)

"It is easy to understand the spellbinding effect that Charcot's teaching exerted on laymen, on many physicians, and especially on foreign visitors such as Sigmund Freud. who spent four months at the Salpêtrière during 1885 and 1886. Other visitors were more sceptical. The Belgian physician Delboeuf, whose interest in Charcot's work had brought him to Paris in the same period as Freud, was soon assailed by the strongest doubts when he saw how carelessly experiments with hysterical patients were carried out. On his return to Belgium, he published a strongly critical account of Charcot's methods."(96)

En hij was niet de enige met kritiek. Charcot had heel wat tegenstanders en vijanden.

"Pierre Janet has accurately described Charcot's methodological errors in that field."(98)

"Because of Charcot's paternalistic attitude and his despotic treatment of students, his staff never dared contradict him; they therefore showed him what they believed he wanted to see. After rehearsing the demonstrations, they showed the subjects to Charcot, who was careless enough to discuss their cases in the patients· presence. A peculiar atmosphere of mutual suggestion developed between Charcot. his collaborators, and his patients, which would certainly be worthy of an accurate sociological analysis.
Janet has pointed out that Charcot's descriptions of hysteria and hypnotism were based on a very limited number of patients . The prima donna, Blanche Wittmann, deserves more than an anecdotal mention. The role of patients in the elaboration of dynamic psychiatry has been all too neglected and would also be worthy of intensive investigation. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to gather relevant information in retrospect." [mijn nadruk] (98)

Charcot is niet bekend vanwege zijn medische en neurologische werk (wat hij zonder meer zou verdienen), maar vanwege de demonstratie van onverwachte kanten van de geest. Dat had immense invloed op de literatuur, bijvoorbeeld.

"Charcot pointed to the existence of unconscious 'fixed ideas' as nuclei of certain neuroses, a concept that was to be developed by Janet and Freud."(102)

(110) 3. The first dynamic psychiatry (1775-1900)

"The cumulative experience of several generations of magnetizers and hypnotists resulted in the slow development of a well-rounded system of dynamic psychiatry. These pioneers undertook with great audacity the exploration and the therapeutic utilization of unconscious psychological energies. On the basis of their findings, they elaborated new theories about the human mind and the psychogenesis of illness. This first dynamic psychiatry was an impressive achievement, even more so since it was brought about mostly outside of - if not directly in opposition to - official medicine." [mijn nadruk] (110)

"However, two facts should be emphasized: (1) In the new dynamic schools, much of that which seems to us to be most original was in fact rooted in the first dynamic psychiatry. (2) Although the new system seemed at times to be radically opposed to the first dynamic psychiatry, the latter was in reality not superseded, but rather supplemented, by the former."(110)

[Dat is de belangrijke bijdrage van dit boek: het aantonen van de continuïteit, de ontwikkeling van opvattingen en methoden en zo verder. Dat is belangrijk omdat dit al het geïdealiseer van de 'ontdekkingen van Freud etc.' relativeert, niet in het minst de zelfidealisatie die Freud zelf er op na hield.]

Kenmerken eerste fase dynamische psychiatrie

Belangrijkste kenmerken van de eerste fase van de dynamische psychiatrie zoals we net zagen:

1/ hypnose was de belangrijkste weg naar het onbewuste;

2/ de aandacht ging uit naar heel specifieke ziektebeelden zoals - steeds meer - de hysterie;

3/ er ontstond een nieuw model voor de menselijke geest;

"It was based on the duality of conscious and unconscious psychism. Later, it was modified to the form of a cluster of subpersonalities underlying the conscious personality."(111)

4/ die ziektebeelden ontstonden door bepaalde vormen van mentale energie, door bepaalde onbewuste fragmenten van de persoonlijkheid;

5/ de therapie leunde voornamelijk op hypnose en suggestie en de relatie tussen patient en therapeut was daarmee zeer belangrijk.

Kenmerken hypnose, technieken

Eerst worden de bronnen van die eerste fase van de dynamische psychiatrie beschreven. Nog niet beschreven: de belangrijke rol van de verbeelding van 1500 tot 1900. Die kon tot allerlei fysieke fenomenen leiden. Daarbij hoorden ook dromen, slaapwandelen, hallucinaties, etc. Hypnose was dus de manier om kunstmatig slaapwandelen en dergelijke op te roepen, maar er was vanaf het begin veel discussie over hoe dat moest, wat de kenmerken van de hypnotische toestand waren en zo verder, en er kwamen technieken bij om een bepaalde toestand op te roepen.

"One of the first characteristics of magnetic sleep to strike the early mesmerists was the increased acuteness of perception displayed by the subjects. Hypnotized individuals are able to perceive stimuli that are normally neglected or below the threshold of perception.(...) Not less remarkable is the increased capacity of the memory; the hypnotized person may remember old and seemingly forgotten incidents of his childhood and describe happenings during artificial or spontaneous somnambulism or during intoxication. Th is hypermnesia extends to things that had apparently remained unnoticed by the subject.
It was soon discovered that hypnotism opens a direct access to certain psychological processes. Not only is the subject able to display greater physical strength than he believes himself capable of in his normal waking state, but he may - spontaneously or at the command of the hypnotist - turn deaf, blind, hallucinated, paralyzed, spastic, cataleptic or anesthetic."(115)

[Hoe weten we zeker dat het herinneringen zijn en niet fantasieën?]

"But contrary to the assumption of the first mag­netizers, it became evident that a hypnotized subject is perfectly able to lie, not only through suggestion, but of his own volition."(117)

[Precies.]

"One of the most controversial issues of hypnotism was the phenomenon of age regression recognized early by some hypnotists and subject to scrutiny in the 1880's and 1890's. The hypnotized subject is told that he is going backward in time, for instance to his adolescence or childhood at a given moment of his past. His behavior, his movements, and his voice change accordingly. He seems to have forgotten everything that happened to him since the moment that he is reenacting, and he gives a detailed account of happenings at this period of his life. Is this 'true regression', that is, reviviscence of what the subject actually experienced at that given age, or is it only an excellent histrionic imitation of what he believes to have experienced then? This was a much discussed problem." [mijn nadruk] (117)

"However, men like Deleuze, Gauthier, Charpignon, and others emphasized the need for great caution on the part of the magnetizer. Teste noted that the subject soon became able to detect the secret wishes of the magnetizer and warned against the dangers, not only of crude sexual seduction, but of falling into a sincere and true love relationship." [mijn nadruk] (118)

"Bernheim emphasized the fact that pseudo-memories can be suggested under hypnosis. After waking up, the patient will believe that he saw or did something according to the hypnotist's suggestion."(118)

[Steeds weer blijkt hoe goed men vanaf het begin het belang van die relatie tussen therapeut en cliënt door had. Het hele idee overdracht en tegenoverdracht was al lang bekend vóór Freud, al werden die termen niet gebruikt. Verleiding en misbruik liggen altijd op de loer, posthypnotische suggestie ook, valse herinneringen ook, verslaving aan hypnose, afhankelijkheid van de therapeut ook.]

"Janet notes that the essential manifestations of hypnotism were known from the beginning and that nothing of importance was added during the nineteenth century." [mijn nadruk] (119)

"Involuntarily, the hypnotist suggested to the patient more than he thought he did, and the patient returned to the hypnotist much of that which the latter secretly expected. A process of mutual suggestion may thus develop; the history of dynamic psychiatry abounds in fantastic myths and romances that evolved through the unconscious collaboration of hypnotist and hypnotized. We can thus understand why the entire nineteenth century was in turn attracted and repelled by the phenomenon of hypnotism." [mijn nadruk] (120)

Hierna gaat het over de variaties in de technieken van de therapeut. Onderzoek naar de trance van mediums door Flournoy, later door Jung, gaf ook inzicht in de hypnotische slaap.

"Some psychologists such as Frederick Myers and William James understood that automatic writing provided a means of access to the unconscious. They applied it, giving that method the character of a scientific procedure. As we shall see later, Janet systematically applied automatic writing in the investigations of his patients' subconscious."(121)

[Elke keer weer duikt de term 'onbewuste', terwijl dat juist een problematisch idee is. Maar waarschijnlijk zal dat later verduidelijkt worden door Ellenberger.]

Ziektebeelden, met name meervoudige persoonlijkheidsstoornis

Ziektebeelden die allemaal een raakvlak hadden met hysterie: slaapwandelen, lethargie, catalepsie, manische extase, extatische visioenen, tijdelijke meervoudige persoonlijkheid. Met al of niet als aanleiding een epileptische aanval, een koortsaanval, een traumatische val, een mentale schok (zoals het overlijden van een dierbaar persoon of misbruik), en zo verder. En met vaak opvallend op de achtergrond: persoonlijke motieven om in die hysterie-achtige staat te geraken / te zijn.

"In such cases as well as in those of multiple successive personalities, nineteenth century authors have not sufficiently emphasized the conscious or unconscious personal motivations underlying these shifts of personality. Actually, the first case history in which these personal motivations were duly underlined was the one published by Raymond and Janet in 1895."(126)

"The phenomenon of possession, so frequent for many centuries, could well be considered as one variety of multiple personality. (...)
Actually, it was only after the disappearance of the phenomenon of possession that case histories of multiple personality began to appear in mesmerist writings and later also in medical literature."(127)

[Met andere woorden: nieuwe wijn in oude zakken. Een ander taalgebruik vanuit een andere ideologische achtergrond voor dezelfde verschijnselen.]

"The majority of cases of multiple personalities belong to this group of one­ way amnestic. As we have seen, B knows everything about A, whereas A knows nothing about B . Moreover, S. W. Mitchell emphasized the fact that in all known cases, it was found that personality B is freer and more elated; personality A is inhibited, compulsive, and depressed. Myers, and then Janet, declared that it was incorrect, as did Azam, to call personality A normal and personality B abnormal. Actually, personality A is the sick person, and B may be considered a return to the formerly healthy per­sonality, such as it was before the onset of the illness."(138)

[Kijk, dat is nu eens een boeiende manier om dezelfde dingen anders te zien.]

"After 1910, there was a wave of reaction against the concept of multiple personality. It was alleged that the investigators, from Despine to Prince, had been duped by mythomaniac patients and that they had involuntarily shaped the manifestations they were observing. The new dynamic psychiatry showed little interest in the problems of multiple personality. At the present time, however, there seems to be a partial revival of interest in it."(141)

Hysterie

"From a clinical point of view, the earliest focus of attention of the first dynamic psychiatry was somnambulism. Multiple personality took over in a later period, but toward the end of the nineteenth century, hysteria became more prominent, and it was at this point that a synthesis was reached between the teachings of hypnotists on the one hand and official psychiatry on the other."(141-142)

"A truly objective and systematic study of hysteria begins with the French physician Briquet, whose celebrated Traité de l'Hystérie was published in 1859."(142)

"Briquet absolutely denied the then commonly held view of erotic craving or frustrations as being at the root of this disease (he found hysteria almost non-existent among nuns, but very frequent among Paris prostitutes). He attached much importance to hereditary factors (he found that 25 percent of the daughters of hysterical women became hysterical themselves). He further found that hysteria was more common in the lower social classes than in the higher strata of society, more frequent in the country than in the city, and he concluded that hysteria was caused by the effect of violent emo­tions, protracted sorrows, family conflicts, and frustrated love, upon predisposed and hypersensitive persons. Charcot was later to take over the main lines of this concept of hysteria."(142)

"Nevertheless, he [Charcot] recognized that the sexual element played an extremely important part in the life of his hysterical women patients, as can be seen from a perusal of the book on the grande hystérie by his disciple Paul Richer." [mijn nadruk] (143)

Dipsychisme

"From the beginning, ideas diverged as to whether that other, or hidden, mind was to be considered "closed" or "open." According to the first conception, the hidden mind is "closed" in the sense that it contains only things, which, at one time or other, went through the conscious mind, notably forgotten memories or occasionally memories of impressions that the conscious mind had only fleetingly perceived, as well as memories of daydreams and fantasies. Some authors contended that this forgotten material could follow an autonomous development, independent of the conscious mind . The dipsychism theory was particularly developed by Dessoir, who wrote the once famous book The Double Ego (1890), in which he expounded the concept that the human mind normally consists of two distinct layers, each of which has its own characteristics. Each of these two egos consist, in turn, of complex chains of associations. Dessoir called them Oberbewusstsein and Unterbewusstsein, "upper consciousness" and "under consciousness"; we get an inkling of the latter during dreams and clearer impressions during spontaneous somnambulism." [mijn nadruk] (145)

[Steeds weer duiken dezelfde karakteriseringen op. Zo origineel was Freud dus echt niet.]

"Dipsychism in its closed variety was the model from which Janet drew his concept of the subconscious and Freud his first concept of the unconscious as being the sum total of repressed memories and tendencies. Jung's theory of the unconscious was soon of the open variety, in that the individual unconscious is open to the collective unconscious of the archetypes. Both Freud and Jung evolved from a dipsychical to a polypsychical model of the human personality. With Freud, this occurred when he replaced his former model of the conscious-unconscious with his later three-fold model of the ego-id-superego, whereas Jung evolved a still more complex system."(147)

"One of the most constant contentions of the first dynamic psychiatry was that of the psychogenesis of many mental and physical conditions. The psychogenesis of illness was evidenced above all by those cures performed with the help of magnetizing and hypnotizing. Theories were also brought forth with regard to pathogenesis." [mijn nadruk] (148)

"The word 'mythomania', which was later coined by Dupré, was found to apply to a great number of hysterics. Actually, mythomania could be understood as one particular aspect of a wider concept, that of the mythopoetic function of the unconscious. With the ex­ception of a few brilliant studies such as that by Fournoy about his medium Helen Smith, this mythopoetic function has not received the attention it deserves, and it is regrettable that the new systems of dynamic psychiatry have not yet filled this gap." [mijn nadruk] (150)

"Whatever the psychotherapeutic procedure, it showed the same common basic feature: the presence and utilization of the rapport. This term was used from the beginning by Mesmer and was handed down by generations of magnetizers and hypnotists to the beginning of the twentieth century, while the concept was gradually being developed and perfected.(...)
Actually, the phenomenon of the rapport was not quite as new as it would seem; it had already been known in the procedure of exorcism.(...)
The possibility of erotic connotation in the magnetic rapport was also known from the beginning ..." [mijn nadruk] (152)

"The first dynamic psychiatry exerted a great influence on philosophy, literature. and even the arts. Three main trends of that science emerged in turn: animal magnetism, spiritism. and the teachings of hypnotism and multiple personality."(158)

Culturele invloed

"We can hardly realize today to what extent hypnotism and suggestion were invoked in the 1880's to explain countless historical, anthropological, and sociological facts such as the genesis of religions, miracles, and wars. Gustave Le Bon popularized a theory of collective psychology based on the assumption that the "collective soul" of the crowd could be compared to the hypnotized mind, and the leader to the hypnotist. Entire educational systems were based on the concept of suggestion."(164-165)

"At the beginning of the twentieth century, literature began giving subtler descriptions of the many facets of human personality, of their interplay , and of the polypsychic structure of the human mind, as seen in the works of Pirandello, Joyce. Italo Svevo, Lenormand , Virginia Woolf, and above all in those of Marcel Proust."(167)

Conclusies

Na 1882 was er een succes van twintig jaar voor hypnose als aanpak. Daarna daalde de belangstelling, omdat niet iedereen gehypnotiseerd kon worden. Veel patiënten zeiden ook alleen maar dat ze onder hypnose waren omdat ze hun arts niet durfden tegen te spreken of omdat ze zo alles konden vertellen en daar dan niet echt verantwoordelijk voor waren. Een ander probleem dat geleidelijk aan duidelijk werd is dat patiënten vaak al snel door hadden wat de hypnotist suggereerde en zich daaraan wist aan te passen.

"It also happened that subjects feigned hypnosis in order to feel free to relieve themselves of painful secrets, which they would have been embar­rassed to reveal otherwise. This may have been so from the earliest beginningsof magnetism."(171)

[En hoe groter de druk vanuit de samenleving om het over allerlei dingen niet te hebben, hoe meer mensen dit soort uitlaatkleppen zochten natuurlijk.]

"In the last years of the nineteenth century, these negative reports accumulated to the point where a powerful reaction took place against the use of hypnotism and the contemporary theories of hysteria."(172-173)

"Common opinion states that the first dynamic psychiatry disappeared around 1900 to be replaced by wholly new systems of dynamic psychiatry. But a careful scrutiny of facts reveals that there was no sudden revolution but, on the contrary, a gradual transition from the one to the others, and that the new dynamic psychiatries took over far more from the first than has been realized. The cultural influence of the first dynamic psychiatry has been extremely persistent and still pervades contemporary life to an unsuspected degree.
The new dynamic psychiatries, having incorporated much from the first one, also assimilated a great deal of knowledge from other sources. The new dynamic psychiatries can be understood only if one first makes a survey of the entire sociological and cultural background throughout the nineteenth century. This will be the subject of the following chapter."(174)

(182) 4 - The Background of Dynamic Psychiatry

Beschrijving van de sociale achtergronden. Alles was rond 1800 totaal anders als wat wij kennen.

"In 1771, after completing a circumnavigation of the world, the French navigator Bougainville published a narrative of his travels, exciting imaginations with his description of the alleged natural happiness and utmost sexual freedom among the natives of Tahiti. Commenting on Bougainville's narrative, Diderot concluded that the benefits of civilization and morals (which he did not deny) had been acquired at the cost of man's natural happiness. Civilized man, he said , is the prey of internal strife between the 'natural man' and the 'moral and artificial man': whether the one or the other prevails in this strife, civilized man remains forever an unhappy creature - an idea that was later to be taken over by Nietzsche and Freud."(183-184)

"Mesmer's victory over Gassner was a three-fold one: it represented the victory of the Enlightenment over the declining spirit of the Baroque, the victory of science over theology, and the victory of the aristocracy over the clergy."(186)

"But as we shall see later, new social factors contributed by the end of the nineteenth century to the advent of new types of psychotherapy."(192)

"Together with the social factors, powerful economical and political factors had already brought about a transformation of life. Among them were the Industrial Revolution and the principle of nationalities."(192)

De Industriële Revolutie vond plaats tussen 1760 en 1830.

"New, perfected machines using natural and artificial sources of energy (water, steam, electricity) increased production enormously while maintaining the same manpower needs. Traditional crafts gradually disappeared, and a new tide of economic life arose, centered around the concept of profit. It implied a wide economic competition that gradually transformed the world into a gigantic market, vigorously disputed by the big industries of the various nations, together with an expanding system of transportation and communication, which in turn led to the opening up of new markets. New factories sprung up everywhere, causing the peasants to leave the country­side, bringing about a wide-scale urbanization and proletarization of the masses, bitter social problems, and the rise of socialism. Simultaneously, a rapid increase of population in Europe was followed by a large- scale emigration to North America and the overseas countries. Throughout the entire world, the "frontier" was opened to the grasp of the white man, who came either as a settler, taking over new countries, or as a colonist, or trader, exploiting the countries and their peoples."(192)

[Dat is wel een heldere samenvatting van de belangrijke elementen ervan. Ellenberger vergeet alleen alle achterliggende ellende te vermelden van de keuzes voor verhuizing naar de stad of naar een ander land.]

Door de opkomst van de naties verdween het Latijn als de gemeenschappelijke taal op verschillende terreinen als de universiteiten.

"The history of Western civilization is to a great extent that of a few great cultural movements, the Renaissance, Baroque, Enlightenment, and Romanticism, which succeeded each other from the end of the Middle Ages to the nineteenth century.(...) These movements ( as well as other less important ones) cannot be defined as strict chronological entities; they slowly spread from one country to another and overlapped each other."(193)

Renaissance en Barok

"One cannot, therefore, understand men like Janet, Freud , and Jung without realizing that they had been immersed from childhood in an atmosphere of intensive classical culture and that this culture pervaded all their thinking. One negative aspect of the Renaissance was its contempt for the vulgar, the illiterate, and the "fool." But there was also a great interest in mental illness and, as we have seen, in the multiform manifestations ascribed to that peculiar faculty of the mind, imaginatio. The study of imagination, one of the legacies of the Renaissance to the following centuries, was to become a main source of early dynamic psychiatry."(194)

De Verlichting

"The Enlightenment's most fundamental characteristic was the cult of reason, considered to be a permanent universal entity, which was the same for all men of all ages and all countries. Reason was opposed to ignorance, error, prejudice, superstition, imposed beliefs, the tyranny of passions, and the aberrations of fantasy. Following those ideas was the notion that man was a sociable being and society was created for man.(...)
The philosophy of the Enlightenment was optimistic and practical, and proclaimed that science could and had to be applied for the welfare of mankind. Progress was understood not only in its material sense but as a qualitative and moral progress, implying social reforms. A further feature of the Enlightenment was also its faith in and deep concern for education.
In science, the Enlightenment eliminated the principle of authority, and began to apply analysis, used theretofore in mathematics, to other branches of knowledge, including the study of the human mind, society, and politics."(195-196)

"The rational, practical, optimistic features of the Enlightenment converged in the preoccupation with reforms and aid to the underprivileged members of the great human family. The Enlightenment proclaimed the principles of religious freedom and of mutual tolerance among the various religions. (...)
The movement for the abolition of serfdom and slavery also took its roots in the Enlightenment."(196)

"The Enlightenment's enormous impact on medicine is generally little known. It inaugurated pediatrics, orthopedics, public hygiene, and prophylaxy, among others, with its campaign for inoculation against smallpox. It influenced psychiatry in many ways, beginning with its laicization. Many symptoms. which had been considered to be the effects of witchcraft or possession, came to be considered as forms of mental illness. Efforts were being made to understand mental illness in a scientific manner. (...) Owing to the emphasis given to the faculty of reason, mental illness was considered as being essentially a disturbance of reason. Its causes were believed to be either some physical lesion, especially of the brain, or the effects of uncontrolled passions. Therefore, representatives of the Enlightenment taught principles of what we would call mental hygiene, based on the training of the will and the subordination of passions to reason." [mijn nadruk] (197)

[Wonderlijk dat het gevoelsleven / passie meteen wordt gezien als iets waar men rationeel controle over moet krijgen. Hoe keek de Verlichting tegen seksualiteit aan vraag ik me ineens af.]

"The historical and cultural importance of the Enlightenment cannot be overestimated: it constitutes the backbone of modern Western civilization. The principles of freedom of religion, thought, speech , the principles of social justice, equality, the social state, the notion of public welfare as being a normal function of the state rather than an act of charity, the principle of compulsory and free education, and the positive achievements of the American and French revolutions, all sprang from the Enlightenment, as did the foundation of modern psychiatry
. But the Enlightenment also had its negative points. It tended to place all men in the same category and to underestimate differences of physical and mental make-up, and cultural traditions. It furthered a one-sided concept of the emotions as being a disturbance of the rational mind, without acknowledging them in their own right. While furthering historical method­ology, it lacked historical perspective. In spite of its strong emphasis on reason, it was not yet sufficiently critical, and science was still in what Bachelard has called the pre-scientific era." [mijn nadruk] (197-198)

[Precies.]

"Puységur and the mem­bers of the Societée de l'Harmonie revealed another facet of the Enlighten ment - the philanthropic trend to place the discoveries of science and its benefits at the disposal of all mankind and not to restrict it to only those who could afford it."(199)

Romantiek

"In the relationship between the sexes, Romantics de­manded, above all. an emotional and spiritual quality and loathed the idea of the Enlightenment's marriage of reason."(201)

"When speaking of Romanticism, one usually thinks of its expression in literature, in music, and in the arts; but in Germany, Romanticism also pervaded the fields of philosophy, science, and medicine. In view of its particular importance in regard to later developments in dynamic psychiatry, we should take a closer look at the implications of Romanticism in those spheres."(202)

De invloed van de natuurfilosofie

"In his Symposium, Plato had told in a figurative sense that the primordial human being possessed both sexes, which had later become separated from each other by Zeus and that, ever since, man and woman were searching for each other in an effort to reunite. This myth, taken over by Boehme. Baader, and others was well suited to express the Romantic idea of the fundamental bisexuality of the human being, and it was elaborated in many ways by the Romantics. No less basic to them was the notion of the unconscious." [mijn nadruk] (203-204)

"As we shall see in the following pages, there is hardly a single concept of Freud or Jung that had not been anticipated by the philosophy of nature and Romantic medicine."(205)

Besproken worden onder andere Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert, lgnaz Paul Vital Troxler, Carl Gustav Carus, Arthur Schopenhauer, waar allerlei opvattingen te zien zijn die terugkeren bij Freud en Jung.

"The similarities between certain essential teachings of Schopenhauer and Freud have been shown by Cassirer, Scheler, and particularly by Thomas Mann."(209)

"The speculations and findings of German romantic philosophy in the first two-thirds of the nineteenth century culminated in 1869 in Eduard von Hartmann 's famous Philosophy of the Unconscious. The will of Boehme, Schelling, and Schopenhauer finally took the much more appropriate name of unconscious."(209-210)

"From the brief discussions of Reil, Heinroth, Ideler, and Neumann we can see each one's originality of thought, and the same is true for a number of their contemporaries. Within the framework of Romantic psychiatry, we find that these men all had a number of features in common."(214)

"Unfortunately these men lived in comparative isolation and apparently met with little or no understanding on the part of the public authorities. The mid-century was not over when new scientific concepts arose. The study of brain anatomy became of prime importance , and the work of these pioneers fell into disrepute or oblivion. But anyone acquainted with the work of Reil, Heinroth, Ideler, Neumann, and Guislain will recognize a return to these forgotten sources in many of the discoveries of Bleuler, Freud, Jung, and the newer dynamic psychiatry.
After 1850, the philosophy of nature and Romanticism seemed to have completely disappeared. It was the period of positivism and the triumph of the mechanistic Weltanschauung. However, Romanticism produced belated representatives, including two who are of particular importance to us: Fechner and Bachofen." [mijn nadruk] (215)

Gustav Theodor Fechner

Ontdekte wat hij het 'Lustprinzip' noemde, het plezierprincipe. Is de man van de fundering van de experimentele psychologie.

"In 1879 the first institute of experimental psychology was opened in Leipzig by Fechner's great follower Wilhelm Wundt. Leipzig, Fechner's adopted city, had become the center of the new science and students came there from all over the world. Fechner himself was by now a legendary figure, his bald head crowned with long white hair, his old-fashioned clothes, and his proverbial absent-mindedness. When Fechner died at the age of eighty-six, in 1887 , he had won belated fame and was hailed as the father of experimental psychology."(218)

"Freud took from Fechner the concept of mental energy, the "topographical" concept of the mind, the principle of pleasure-unpleasure, the principle of constancy, and the principle of repetition. A large part of the theoretical framework of psychoanalysis would hardly have come into being without the speculations of the man whom Freud called the great Fechner."(218)

Johann Jakob Bachofen

Schreef onder andere over matriarchaat.

"The influence of Bachofen's ideas reached psychiatric circles through various channels, and his influence on dynamic psychiatry has been immense. Turel pointed to certain similarities in the basic concepts of Bachofen and Freud. 'Bachofen, he wrote, discovered the phenomenon of repression half a century before Freud."(222)

In allerlei zaken is Bachofen eerder dan Freud.

"Bachofen had upset the system of values of nineteenth-century bourgeoisie by showing that the realm of sexual life was not originally subordinated to moral values, but that it had unsuspected dimensions and an elaborate symbolism of its own."(222)

"Powerful social, political, and cultural transform ations took place during the nineteenth century. These transformations did not come about consistently, but rather in cycles of acceleration and deceleration. The greatest crisis occurred in the mid-century; its most conspicuous aspect was the revolution of 1848 and its subsequent repression that shook Europe. But it extended over all other fields of human activity, and its consequences were decisive even for the fate of dynamic psychiatry."(223)

Naast het socialisme op politiek-economisch-sociaal vlak komt het positivisme op als benadering in de wetenschappen etc.

"The new philosophy, which had been inaugurated at the dawn of the nineteenth century by Saint­ Simon, was systematized by Auguste Comte, his disciple Littré in France, and by John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer in England . Positivism's basic principle was the cult of facts; the positivists did not search for the unknowable, the thing in itself, the absolute, but for the kind of certitude afforded by experimental science and for constant laws such as laws of physics. Positivism rejects any speculation akin to the philosophy of nature. Another feature of positivism is its interest in applied science and its search for the useful. Following the line of the Enlightenment, it is concerned with man as a social being. It was Auguste Comte who created the word "sociology" and who established the foundations of that science, which he divided into static and dynamic sociology."(225)

"Under the combined influences of positivist philosophy, the concentration of scientific research in universities, and the trend of cultural optimism, Western science was pervaded with an almost religious faith in science that reached more and more layers of the population. Science was considered to gratify man's disinterested thirst for knowledge above all."(226)

"The universal belief in science often took the shape of a religious faith and produced the mentality that has been called scientism. The scientism trend went so far as to deny the existence of all that was not approachable by scientific methods, and it often merged with atheism. After 1850, a wave of popular books propagating the exclusive belief in science com­bined it with atheism and sometimes with an oversimplified teaching of materialism. Such were the works of Buchner, Moleschott, and Vogt, and later those of Haeckel." [mijn nadruk] (227)

"Thus, man at the end of the century was not quite the same biological being as he had been at its beginning, and it is therefore not surprising that he did not have quite the same psychopathology."(228)

"The philosophy of the Industrial Revolution, free enterprise, competition, the opening up of new countries and the fierce struggle for world markets, found a seemingly scientific rationalization in Darwinism, whereas Marxism provided a philosophical basis for the socialist parties that arose from the development of a growing industrial proletariat and the intensification of the class struggle. These two doctrines, Darwinism and Marxism, exerted an overwhelming influence after 1860, an influence that made itself felt in all areas, including dynamic psychiatry."(228)

Charles Darwin

"Historians of science have found a number of forerunners of Darwin during and after the seventeenth century and concluded that evolutionist thinking was fairly widespread in the century before Darwin. (...) The merit of Charles Darwin is not that he introduced the notion of transformism but that he proposed a new causal explanation and substantiated his theory with an overwhelming amount of arguments patiently accumulated for twenty years."(230)

"In The Descent of Man, Darwin departs from the almost exclusive role he had ascribed in The Origin of Species to the struggle for existence. He speaks of the instinct of mutual help, and declares that, in the evolution of man, the most important factor was sexual selection. that is, the fact that the stronger individuals tend to choose the more attractive females, that these females show a preference for the stronger males, and that these selected individuals have the more numerous offspring." [mijn nadruk] (231)

[En wat voor bewijs had hij daarvoor? Definieer 'sterk', definieer 'attractive' ... En is dit wel wat Darwin schreef?]

"The Enlightenment had understood the idea of progress as a continuous process. which mankind had followed under the guidance of reason, a process aiming at the good and the happiness of mankind (including its disinherited members). Romantics had speculated about a hidden process underlying nature, of unconscious irrational forces, which, however, worked toward a rational aim. Now, Darwinism pointed to the occurrence of biological progress among living species and of social, and even moral, progress within mankind as a result of the automatic and mechanic effect of chance happenings and of a blind, universal struggle. This idea was seized by atheists who used it as a weapon against the religious belief in the creation and against religion itself."(233)

"The most important influence of Darwinism was felt through Social Darwinism, that is, the indiscriminate application of the concepts of "struggle for life," "survival of the fittest," and "elimination of the unfit" to the facts and problems of human societies. It was the naturalist Thomas Huxley, one of Darwin's first disciples, who summarized that philosophy ..."(234)

"If Darwin's teaching could be thus interpreted by a naturalist, one can easily imagine how it became distorted in the writings of sociologists and political authors who had learned of it only by hearsay. In the name of that fantasy Darwinism, this alleged universal law was used as a rationalization to justify the extermination of primitive populations by the white man. Marxists used it as an argument in favor of class struggle and revolution. The criminologists Ferri and Garofalo of the Italian Positive School used the concept of the "elimination of the unfit" as an argument for the preserva­tion of capital punishment. Atkinson extended the notion of universal struggle to the realm of the family and described the murder of the old father by the adult sons as being the rule among primitive men. Mili­tarists throughout the world turned it into a scientific argument for the necessity of war and for maintaining armies. The pseudo-Darwinian philosophy that persuaded the European elite that war is a biological necessity and an inescapable law has been held responsible for the unleashing of World War I. A long series of politicians proclaimed the same principle, culminating with Hitler who repeatedly invoked Darwin. In short, as stated by Kropotkin. "There is no infamy in civilized society, or in the relations of the Whites toward the so-called lower races, or of the strong toward the weak. which would not have found its excuse in this formula." This line of thought, which could be traced from Hobbes' principle of "man is a wolf to man" to Malthus and from Darwin to Kipling's literary description of "the law of the jungle," gave its specific coloring to the Western world particularly in the last decades of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries."(234-235)

"Like so many of his contemporaries. Freud was an enthusiastic reader of Darwin, and the influence of Darwinism on psychoanalysis is manifold."(236)

Karl Marx

"With regard to dynamic psychiatry, what has been said should suffice to enlighten certain features of Freud's and Adler's dynamic psychologies. In Adler's case, the relationship to Marx is quite obvious and direct since, although he was not a Communist or an orthodox Marxist, he was a supporter of socialism. To a certain degree, Adler considers a neurosis as a reflection of social relationships as internalized by the individual. The influence of the socialist August Bebel is apparent in Adler's concept of the relations between man and woman.
Curious parallels have been pointed out between some of Freud's basic ideas and those of Marx."(239)

"By the end of the nineteenth century, two conditions were universally considered to be the main neuroses: hysteria and neurasthenia, the former being mainly a neurosis of women, the latter predominantly a neurosis of men. Hysteria and neurasthenia were often described side by side and contrasted with each other. However, this concept was criticized and efforts were made to delineate other specific types of neurosis."(244)

"Through the combined action of all these factors, a new type of dynamic psychiatry superseding the first one finally emerged. The circumstances that preceded and accompanied its birth need closer examination and will be dealt with in the following chapter."(246)

(254) 5 - On the Threshold of a New Dynamic Psychiatry

Schildering van de culturele situatie in de jaren 1880 - 1900.

"Above all, there prevailed a feeling of deep-rooted security. In spite of local and limited wars, workers' strikes, socialist agitation, and the anarchists' criminal attempts, the world seemed unshakable. The same was true in economic matters, despite periodical crises."(254)

[Wiens wereld? Ik vind dit een wel erg mooie afschildering van de algemene situatie. Misschien dat het in de hogere en middenklassen, bij de gegoede burgerij stabiel was, maar zeker niet bij de arbeiders.]

"There was a strong emphasis on male domination . It was a world shaped by man for man, in which woman occupied the second place. Political rights for women did not exist. The separation and dissimilarity of the sexes was sharper than today. The army was an exclusively male organization - a women's auxiliary service was unheard of. Office employees, including secretaries, were all males. The universities admitted no female students (the first ones appeared in the early 1890's). There were many gentle­men 's clubs, and even in mixed social gatherings men would go to the smoking room while the ladies went to the drawing room, once dinner was over. Male virtues (ambition, aggressiveness, toughness) were extolled in literature. Virile manners included the wearing of a beard, moustache, or whiskers, walking with a stick or a cane, the practice of athletics, horse­back-riding and fencing, rather than other sports that are more widespread today. Another virile custom, the duel, existed among officers, in German student associations, and in certain aristocratic and "high life" circles. However, women had their salons, their committees, their journals, and trains had special compartments for ladies. Women who wore slacks, wore their hair short, or smoked, were hardly to be found . Man's authority over his children and also over his wife was unquestioned. Education was authoritarian; the despotic father was a common figure and was particularly conspicuous only when he became extremely cruel. Conflicts between generations, particularly between fathers and sons, were more frequent than today. But authoritarianism was a feature of the times and reigned everywhere, not only in the family. The military, magistrates, and judges enjoyed great prestige. Laws were more repressive, delinquent youth sternly punished, and corporal punishment was considered indispensable. All this must be considered with regard to the genesis of Freud's Oedipus complex." [mijn nadruk] (255)

"But everywhere, the leading class was the high bourgeoisie. The largest part of the wealth and political power was in its hands, and it controlled industry and finance. Below the bourgeoisie were the working classes. To be sure, the conditions of laborers had much improved since the beginning of the century but, despite the progress made, laborers were much poorer than they are now and were also less protected by social laws. The working hours were long; many laborers felt exploited, and demonstrations during strikes or on the first of May often took place in a "loaded" atmosphere. Child labor had been prohibited, but women's work and sweatshops were no myth. The material conditions of the peasantry had also largely improved, but not enough to prevent a constant stream of farmers from emigrating to the towns and cities. The impoverishment or disappearance of folklore was noticeable everywhere. The lowest step of the social ladder was occupied by the so-called Lumpenproletariat, that is, people living in slums in the utmost misery. Inextricable social problems were linked with the existence of these classes." [mijn nadruk] (255-256)

[Hoe kun je eerst zeggen dat de wereld stabiel was en vervolgens bovenstaande dingen beschrijven? Voor witte mannen en de rijkere milieus misschien, maar niet in het algemeen. En dan de kririekloosheid, het gepsychologiseer zoals in "many laborers felt exploited". Ze voelden zich niet alleen uitgebuit, ze werden ook echt uitgebuit.]

"The white man's domination, celebrated in Kipling's work, was unquestioned and proclaimed as a necessity for the welfare of the colonial peoples." [mijn nadruk] (256)

"Another characteristic feature was the great amount of leisure enjoyed by certain classes. Not only did women of the aristocratic and bourgeois society not work, but there were also many men of leisure among the aristocrats, the wealthy, and men of private means. There was also a special world of artists, writers, journalists, and people of the theater, who spent much of their time in cafes and other public places."(256)

[Het is een van de meest opvallende dingen in veel literatuur en zo uit die tijd: al die mensen uit de bemiddelde klasse die lopen niks te doen en hun tijd vullen met bezoekjes over en weer, theater, clubs. Wie zou dat betaald hebben ... ? Een en ander was dus gebaseerd op de uitbuiting van arbeiders en boeren, van vrouwen en kolonialen.]

"In a world of leisure, love was naturally a prime concern of men and women. No wonder that the spirit of that time was permeated with refined eroticism. Those people who were "in love with love" gave to their amorous intrigues the peculiarly formal or theatrical character of their period, as seen in their literature and theater (for instance in the work of Arthur Schnitzler). This same atmosphere bred sudden fads such as the craze for Wagner's music, for Schopenhauer's and Von Hartmann's philosophies of the unconscious, later for Nietzsche's writings , for the Sym­bolists, the Neo-Romantics, and others. Only in that particular perspective can the origin of the new dynamic psychiatry be understood." [mijn nadruk] (256-257)

[Combineer het bovenstaande en je weet dat de patiënten in de privé-praktijken van al die psychiaters uit de gegoede milieus kwamen en voornamelijk vrouwen waren. Terwijl de mensen uit de arme milieus in de grote inrichtingen terecht kwamen.]

Over de verschillende gebieden en naties en de ontwikkelingen daar. Belangrijk natuurlijk de Austro-Hongaarse monarchie met steden als Wenen, Praag en Boedapest. Maar ook Rusland was enorm in opkomst, ook cultureel, geïnspireerd door het volk en het nihilisme ("a trend that could be defined as a fascination with the idea of destruction" noemt Ellenberger het op p.261). America werd op een andere manier weer fascinerend gevonden.

"... the psychiatric work of George Beard and S. Weir Mitchell, the philosophy of Josiah Royce, the psychology of William James and James Mark Baldwin exerted a great influence on the dynamic psychiatry of Pierre Janet."(262)

"Two basic facts are characteristic of that period: the predominance of classical culture in education and the predominance of the university as a center of science."(262)

Latijn was nog steeds belangrijk, maar moderne talen waren dat ook. Ook filosofie werd belangrijk gevonden. Een universitaire loopbaan was niet gemakkelijk te verkrijgen.

"It was inevitable that a system that entailed such hardships and competi­tion would also breed much envy, jealousy, and hatred between the rivals. But these feelings had to be repressed in order to conform to the official standards of behavior."(266)

"But ususally, within the same university, professors who disliked each other maintained a facade of correctness, if not of courtesy, and never spoke ill of each other in public. But, from one university to another, they felt less obligation for self-restraint and would vehemently attack one another, either verbally (one example is the vitriolic speech Virchow delivered in Munich against Haeckel in 1877), or in the form of venomous pamphlets."(266)

"Whatever the explanation, there is no doubt that there was much more verbal violence in the scientific world then than there is today, and this should be taken into account in judging the current controversies against Freud, Adler, and Jung."(267)

"It would be a great contribution to the secret history of science to analyze in detail those factors that bring fame to some scientists, oblivion to others."(270)

Naast Spencer, Mill en Taine was Nietzsche een belangrijke bron van invloed op die periode 1880-1900. Meer over de laatste, vooral omdat hij allerlei begrippen gebruikt en opvattingen heeft die op een andere manier weer terugkomen in de dynamische psychiatrie.

"An entire generation was permeated with Nietzschean thinking - whatever interpretation was given to it - in the same way as the former generation had been under the spell of Darwinism. It is also impossible to overestimate Nietzsche's influence on dynamic psychiatry. More so even than Bachofen, Nietzsche may be considered the common source of Freud, Adler, and Jung." [mijn nadruk] (276)

"Psychoanalysis evidently belongs to that "unmasking" trend, that search for hidden unconscious motivations characteristic of the 1880's and 1890's. In Freud as in Nietzsche, words and deeds are viewed as manifestations of unconscious motivations, mainly of instincts and conflicts of instincts. For both men the unconscious is the realm of the wild, brutish instincts that cannot find permissible outlets, derive from earlier stages of the individual and of mankind, and find expression in passion, dreams, and mental illness."(277)

[Dat is zeker waar, al kan ik me niet helemaal verenigen met Ellenbergers weergave van Nietsches denken in de bladzijden hiervoor.]

"Unlike Freud, Jung has always openly proclaimed the enormous stimulation he received from Nietzsche. Jung's theories are filled with concepts that can be traced, in more or less modified form, to Nietzsche. [mijn nadruk] "(278)

"As already stated, a rapid and marked change of intellectual orientation occurred throughout Europe around 1885. This movement was a reaction against positivism and naturalism and, and to a certain extent, a return to romanticism, which is why it was given the name of Neo-Romanticism. It did not supersede the positivist and naturalist trends but went side by side with them for the remainder of the century. It affected philosophy, literature, the arts, music, and the general way of life, and exerted an unmistakable influence upon the deep-reaching changes that took place at that time in dynamic psychiatry."(277-278)

"As shown by Carter the word "decadence " had changed its meaning and by the end of the nineteenth century had acquired a peculiar connotation of rich and alluring corruptness. Men of that time compared their era to that of the decline of Rome (or rather to a legendary and fanciful picture of imperial Rome), to a no less legendary picture of Byzantine decadence, and to the frivolous debauchery of the court of Louis XV. Everywhere one found expressions of the idea that the world had grown old, supported by pseudoscientific theories, particularly that of degeneration. Hence the success of Max Nordau's book Degeneration, which contained a radical condemna­tion of contemporary cultural movements of that time."(280)

"Another version of the decadence concept was the idea of "aristocratic decay ": as a consequence of the universal spread of democracy, superior individuals and families would be swallowed up by the masses. Finally, there was Nietzsche's contention that the human species as a whole was in decline, because civilization is incompatible with the nature of man. Hence also the then current nostalgia for primitive life, primitive populations, and primitive art."(281)

"This general trend culminated in the fin de siècle spirit. This expression seems to have appeared in Paris in 1886 and was made fashionable by Paul Bourget in 1887 through his novel Mensonges. By 1891, it had become a "literary calamity," which occurred at every moment during conversations and could be read a dozen times in every page of the newspapers. Just as the epoch of Romanticism had experienced the mal du siècle, the period before the end of the century was now impregnated with the fin de siècle mood. There was, firstly, a general feeling of pessimism allegedly founded upon the philosophical doctrines of Von Hartmann and of Schopenhauer.(...)
A second feature of the fin de siècle was the cult of the Anti-Physis, that is, of everything that is the opposite of nature.(...)
A further characteristic of the fin de siècle spirit was its vague mysticism. In the most favorable cases, it led some literary men to a more or less sensational religious conversion (as it had also happened with several Romantics), but it led others to join spiritistic or occult sects of one kind or other. It frequently heightened the interest in the phenomena of hypnosis, somnambulism, dual personality, and mental illness.(...)
Another major characteristic of the fin de siècle spirit was its cult of eroticism. The so-called Victorian spirit, which had reigned mostly in England until the middle decades of the century, had declined everywhere , and little of it remained in continental Europe. On the contrary, books, journals, and newspapers were filled with erotic preoccupations, though with slightly more restraint and more subtlety of expression than today." [mijn nadruk] (281-282)

Die sfeer trof men vooral aan in Parijs en Wenen.

(331) 6 - Pierre Janet and Psychological Analysis

In the contrast between Janet on the one side, Freud, Adler, and Jung on the other, one can see a later manifestation of the contrast between the spirit of the Enlightenment and that of Romanticism.(331)

Janet leefde van 1859 tot 1947.

"From 1907 to his death he lived in the Rue de Varennes in an exclusively aristocratic and diplomatic environment. However, most of the patients whom he treated and who provided the material for his psychiatric work belonged to the poorer classes. Thus, Janet may be depicted as a representative of the French upper middle class, whose life, covering the entire period of the Third Republic, was spent almost entirely in Paris." [mijn nadruk] (332)

"He moved to Paris where he had been appointed to a new post . The ceremony of the presentation of his thesis took place during the great Universal Exposition of 1889 in Paris. Scientists from all over the world were meeting in the Ville-Lumière at congresses that were held at the rate of three or more at a time without interruption. Among many other events, the International Congress for Experimental and Therapeutic Hypnotism took place from August 8 to 12. Janet was one of the committee members together with Liebeault, Bernheim, Dejerine, and Forel, and had ample opportunity to become acquainted with celebrities of the psychological and psychiatric world."

"In August 1913 the International Congress of Medicine took place in London. In the psychiatric section, a session had been organized to discuss Freud's psychoanalysis. Janet was to read a criticism of it and Jung was to defend it. Janet's main criticism concerned two points: first, he claimed priority in having discovered the cathartic cure of neuroses brought forth by the clarification of traumatic origins and he believed that psychoanalysis was simply a development of that fundamental concept. Second, he sharply criticized Freud's method of symbolic interpretation of dreams and his theory of the sexual origin of neurosis. He considered psychoanalysis a "metaphysical " system." [mijn nadruk] (344)

"In April 1937 he also went to Vienna and visited Wagner von Jauregg. Freud, though, refused to see him."(346)

[Zo rancuneus, die Freud ...]

"It is not easy to make an exact appraisal of the personality of Pierre Janet. He always drew a sharp line of distinction between his public and private lives, and shunned all publicity. He never, for instance , granted any interviews to journalists. Even when talking freely with intimate friends, he did not easily reveal his own feelings." [mijn nadruk] (347)

"If we take a bird's-eye view of Pierre Janet's generation, that is of the men who were born in the same year or within one or two years from that year, we find, in France, an impressive list of great thinkers. To Pierre Janet's generation belong among others the philosophers Henri Bergson (1859- 1941), Emile Meyerson (1859-1933), Edmond Goblot (1858-1935), and Maurice Blondel (1861-1949); the sociologists Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Lucien Levy-Bruhl (1857-1939); the socialist leader Jean Jaures (1859-1914); the mathematician and philosopher Gaston Milhaud (1858-1918); and the psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1911)."(354)

Volgt een bespreking van Janet's werk en opvattingen. Het is iemand die droomt van een verzoening van wetenschap en religie en dan op het einde van zijn leven moet constateren dat die verzoening onmogelijk is.

[De denkfout is zoals gewoonlijk de gedachte dat moraal ook maar iets met religie te maken heeft. Zie dit citaat: ]

"The second part of the book, devoted to moral philosophy, includes an analysis of such problems as freedom, responsibility, conscience. and justice, and finally the existence of God and religion."(375)

[Dat laatste had hij weg kunnen laten.]

"Thus, Janet does not start, as did Condillac, from "pure sensation," but from "activity," or rather he never dissociates consciousness from activity." [mijn nadruk] (358)

"Gradually, Janet extended the notion of subconscious fixed ideas beyond the field of classical hysteria, for instance, to occurrences of stubborn sleeplessness, recalling that Noizet and the old magnetizers had emphasized the role of will and suggestion in sleep."(372)

"We will now briefly summarize the main findings of Janet's "psychological analysis."
1. There was the discovery of the "subconscious fixed ideas" and of their pathogenic role. Their cause was usually a traumatic or frightening event that had become subconscious and had been replaced by symptoms. This process was connected, Janet thought, with a narrowing of the field of consciousness.
2. Janet found intermediate levels of subconscious ideas between clear consciousness and the constitutional make-up of patients studied. Furthermore, there appeared even greater complexity in that around primary fixed ideas emerged secondary fixed ideas, through association or substitution.(...)
3. Subconscious fixed ideas, according to Janet, are at the same time cause and effect of mental weakness, and in that regard constitute a pathological vicious circle. They undergo slow changes.(...)
4. It is not always easy to identify these subconscious fixed ideas.(...)
5. Subconscious fixed ideas are a characteristic feature of hysteria, in contrast to obsessive neuroses where they are conscious.(...)
6. The therapy must be aimed at the subconscious fixed idea, but Janet emphasized from the beginning that bringing the subconscious ideas into consciousness was not sufficient to cure the patient. It could merely change such an idea into a conscious fixed obsession. Fixed ideas must be destroyed by means of dissociation or transformation.(...)
7. Janet stressed the role of the rapport in the therapeutic process.(...)
When he spoke of psychological analysis. Janet never claimed it to be his own method. He apparently used this term in the same general sense that mathematicians do when speaking of algebraic analysis and chemists of chemical analysis. Nevertheless. it would seem that the words "psychological analysis" at times became. identified with Janet's exploration of subconscious processes." [mijn nadruk] (372-374)

"In 1893, Janet made a survey and revision of the various theories of hysteria that had been propounded up to that time. He rejected both the purely neurological theory and the theory according to which hysterical symptoms were "faked. " Following Briquet and Charcot, Janet considered hysteria as a psychogenic disease (though developing on the basis of an abnormal physiological make-up)."(375)

"Janet's concept of neuroses belongs neither to the purely organicist nor to the purely psychogenic theories. In hysteria as well as in psychasthenia, he distinguished a psychogenetic process deriving from life events and fixed ideas and an organic substratum, that is, a neurotic predisposition. He ascribed the latter to those hereditary and constitutional factors ..."(377)

"Janet's distinction of two main neuroses, hysteria and psychasthenia , was taken over by C. G. Jung, who made them the prototypes of the extroverted and introverted personalities (the latter being also linked with Bleuler's theory of schizophrenia). Meanwhile, at any rate in France , the neurological school that had succeeded Charcot questioned the very existence of a hysterical neurosis, and hysterical patients gradually disappeared from French hospitals. The concept of psychasthenia was also criticized: was it really a nosological entity?"(377)

"Though always acknowledging the importance of hereditary, congenital, and organic factors, Janet ascribes a large place to the autonomous dynamism of psychic energy. Provided that the psychiatrist understands and knows how to utilize the laws of that psychological dynamism, he is entitled to expect substantial psychotherapeutic results." [mijn nadruk] (384)

"The influence of religion, Janet says, has been immeasurable. It is religion that has created morality in the modern sense . Compared with the usual commands of the leader, moral commands have dignity (categorical quality) , an imperative quality (that is, they must be also obeyed in secret) , and obedience to them gives a feeling of pride. The reason for that difference, Janet says, is that duties are the commandments not of the chief or leader, but of the gods. Thus morality has a religious stamp and is an outgrowth of religion . Because of religious morality man has become an ego, that is, he has learned to subordinate and organize his desires. Logic, Janet adds, which is intellectual morality, also bears the imprint of religious influence." [mijn nadruk] (399)

[Dat is niet eens waar. Het bekende geklets van gelovigen.]

"Among the philosophers he most often quoted were Francis Bacon (the subject of his Latin thesis), Malebranche, Condillac, the school of the Ideologists, and particularly Maine de Biran."(402)

"Among psychologists, Janet's master was undoubtedly Theodule Ribot, for whom he had the deepest personal respect and affection. Whereas experimental psychology at that time developed in Germany under the influence of Wundt as the science of the measurement of psychological factors, the French school with Taine and Ribot preferred the psychopathological approach."(403)

"Another fundamental source of Janet's work was the first dynamic psychiatry. We recall that while in Le Havre he discovered the work of Doctor Perrier and the small group of magnetizers in Caen, and that he subsequently explored the entire world of the forgotten knowledge investigated by men such as Puysegur, Deleuze, Bertrand, Noizet, Teste, Gauthier, Charpignon, the two Despines, Du Potet, and a long series of pioneers whose merits and discoveries Janet never failed to mention."(403-404)

"Janet stands at the threshold of all modern dynamic psychiatry. His ideas have become so widely known that their true origin is often unrecognized and attributed to others. Few people realize, for instance, that the word "subconscious" was coined by Janet."(406)

"And so, while the veil of Lesmosyne was falling upon Janet, the veil of Mnemosyne was lifted to illuminate his great rival, Sigmund Freud."(409)

(418) 7 - Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis

"With Sigmund Freud, a new feature is seen in the history of dynamic psychiatry. Whereas men such as Pierre Janet kept closely within the bounds of the traditional scientific organizations, of the university, of established learned societies, wrote in journals open to any psychological or medical viewpoint, and never attempted to found a school, Freud openly broke with official medicine. With Freud begins the era of the newer dynamic schools, with their official doctrine, their rigid organization, their specialized journals, their closed membership, and the prolonged initiation imposed upon their members. The founding of this new type of dynamic psychiatry was linked with a cultural revolution comparable in scope to that unleashed by Darwin." [mijn nadruk] (418)

"Sigmund Freud's life is an example of gradual social ascension from the lower middle class to the high bourgeoisie . After the difficult years of the Privat Dozent, he became one of the best-known physicians in Vienna, with the envied title of Extraordinary Professor. The patients on whom he made his neurological studies belonged to the lower strata of the population, but his private practice, on which he based his psychoanalysis, was made up of patients from the higher social circles. In his early fifties he found himself the chief of a movement whose influence gradually spread over the cultural life of the civilized world, so that in his late sixties he had attained world fame." [mijn nadruk] (419)

[Het gewone volk als proefkonijn.]

"Much of the family background of Sigmund Freud is still unknown or unclear. The little we know must be understood within the larger frame of reference of the conditions of the Jews in Austria-Hungary in the nineteenth century."(419-420)

"Family life was rigorously patriarchal, the man was the undisputed authority in the home. Discipline was strict, but the parents did their utmost to secure a better future for their children. Under such confining conditions, where everybody knew what the other was doing, there developed a special mentality of harsh instinctual repression, unavoidable honesty, quick wit in a sarcastic vein (as seen in those writers such as Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Borne, who grew up in a ghetto) . The main feature was fear, fear of their parents, their teachers, their husbands, the rabbis, God, and above all the Gentiles." [mijn nadruk] (421)

"Such was the condition of the Jews before the Emancipation. The unsuccessful revolution of 1848 was followed by a short but harsh reaction, which also affected the Jews, but in 1852 a period of liberal policy began. In 1867 the Jews were officially granted equal political rights, which in practice they had already enjoyed for one decade. There was a great influx of Jews from all parts of the monarchy to Vienna, and also from the neighboring parts of the Russian Empire to Austria-Hungary."(422)

"The trend toward assimilation was facilitated by the fact that, for two or three decades, anti-Semitism was almost completely unknown in Austria. In Vienna the Jewish population increased steadily, and from a few hundreds at the beginning of the nineteenth century, their members attained 72,000 in 1880, 118,000 in 1890, and 147,000 in 1900. There were many Jewish lawyers, doctors, and scientists."(423)

"The foregoing will help us to understand the problem of Freud's family background in its full complexity. Factual and reliable data on Freud's ancestors, even about his parents, are scarce. Like many of their contemporaries, they were very discreet in what they divulged of their past. Almost everything about the life and personality of Jacob Freud is obscure. Only recently have painstaking researches made by Dr. Renee Gicklhorn and Dr. J . Sajner brought some light."(424)

"Aside from these few documentary data, we know very little about Jacob Freud, and even his birth date is uncertain. We know nothing of his childhood, his youth, his first wife and first marriage, nor where he lived until 1844, nor about his second wife, nor when and how he met his third wife, what he did in Leipzig in 1859, and finally how he earned his living in Vienna, and what was his financial situation."(425)

"Even more obscure are the personalities of Jacob Freud's brothers, particularly of Sigmund's uncle Josef and the latter's conflicts with the law. Jacob's third wife, Amalia Nathanson, according to the marriage certificate, was "from Brody " (which does not necessarily mean that she was born there) , was nineteen years old (so the date of her birth would be 1836) , and her father Jacob Nathanson was a "trade agent" in Vienna. A part of her childhood was spent in Odessa, southern Russia, from where her parents moved to Vienna at an unknown date. Testimonies about her concord on three points: her beauty, her authoritarian personality, and her boundless admiration for her firstborn Sigmund. She died in 1931 at the age of ninety-five." [mijn nadruk] (426)

"Freud's personality had been strongly shaped by the traditions of his Jewish community. He kept the patriarchal ideology, with its belief in the domination of man and subordination of woman, its devotion to the extended family, and its severe puritanical mores."(427)

[Ja, helaas.]

"The difficulty in writing about Freud stems from the profusion of the literature about him, and from the fact that a legend had grown around him, which makes the task of an objective biographer exceedingly laborious and unrewarding. Behind this mountain of factual and legendary material are wide gaps in our knowledge of his life and personality. Moreover, many of the known sources are not available, particularly those contained in the Freud archives deposited in the Library of Congress in Washington."(427)

[Wat alle mogelijke mythevorming mogelijk heeft gemaakt.]

"On the whole, we are far from having the thorough and exact knowledge of Freud's life which is generally supposed to exist. But even a complete reconstruction of Freud's life and of the development of his work would not suffice to give an accurate picture, because these must be viewed against the background of contemporary events, and the originality of his work cannot be measured without knowledge of preexisting and contemporary ideas." [mijn nadruk] (428)

"The allegation that Jacob Freud possessed a weaving mill belongs to the legend, as well as the story that he left Freiberg on account of the raging anti-Semitism. No less fragmentary is our knowledge of the year in Leipzig that followed, and the journey from there to Vienna, where Jacob Freud settled around February 1860. Almost nothing, either, is known about Freud's early childhood in Vienna. The only certain point is that Jacob Freud changed his residence several times between 1860 and 1865, and after that lived in the Pfeffergasse , in the predominantly Jewish quarter of Leopoldstadt." [mijn nadruk] (428-429)

"For many young men at that time, the study of medicine was a means of satisfying their interest in the natural sciences."(430)

"In the legendary accounts of that meeting it would seem as though tremendous discoveries, which had not yet reached Vienna, had been revealed to Freud in Paris (such as the existence of male hysteria) , and that, while acting as Charcot's missionary to the Viennese "pundits, " he was shamefully scorned and rejected. Actually, things were quite otherwise. Freud had returned from Paris with an idealized picture of Charcot. Much of what he attributed to Charcot were the views of previous authors, and male hysteria was a well-known condition of which case histories had been published in Vienna long since by Benedikt."(440)

"Contrary to the legend, Freud did not break his ties with the Society after that meeting. His candidacy was submitted by seven prominent members of the Society on February 16, 1887, and he was elected on March 18, 1887. He never ceased to be a member o f the Society until he left Vienna."(442)

"Over a period of about six years (1894 to 1899) four events are inextricably intermingled in Freud's life: his intimate relationship with Wilhelm Fliess, his neurotic disturbances, his self-analysis, and his elaboration of the basic principles of psychoanalysis. We will first summarize the known facts, then propose an interpretation. The two main sources are Freud's Interpretation of Dreams, which analyzes several dozen of Freud's dreams of that period, and the published part of his correspondence with Fliess." [mijn nadruk] (444)

Ellenberger verklaart het (neurotische en bijzonder onaangename) gedrag van Freud in die jaren met het idee "creative illness".

[Al dat begrip voor Freud is me iets te aardig. Maakt het wat uit wat de psychologische reden is dat iemand uit zijn nek kletst, i.e. dingen beweert die niet getoetst kunnen worden? Feit blijft dat hij uit zijn nek kletst en zich voortdurend immuun maakt voor kritiek.]

"The assertion that Freud was ostracized in Vienna is unfounded."(450)

"As to the assertion that the book [Die Traumdeutung - GdG] was met with silence or annihilating criticism, it has been refuted by Ilse Bry and Alfred Rifkin."(452)

"Whereas around 1900 Freud was seen as an explorer of the unconscious and interpreter of dreams, he now appeared as the proponent of a sexual theory. The traditional story is that these new theories aroused a storm of indignation and abuse; but here too an objective examination reveals a different picture. Bry and Rifkin, on the basis of reviews of Freud 's works of that time, conclude that " knowledge and appreciation of Freud 's work spread widely and rapidly," that "for the time during which Freud is supposed to have been ignored, a great many signs of recognition and extraordinary respect could be added to the few illustrations given in his paper." Freud had become a celebrity and a much sought after therapist." [mijn nadruk] (454-455)

"Contrary to the usual assertion, his publications did not meet with the icy silence or the disparaging criticism that are said to have existed. Actually the reception was mostly favorable, though at times accompanied by a mixture of surprise and puzzlement. It was seldom a direct rejection, and in that regard others fared no better than he. It might be that the feeling of utmost and bitter isolation, which is a characteristic feature of creative neurosis, persisted in Freud and was reinforced because during those years he had markedly isolated himself from the Viennese medical world." [mijn nadruk] (455)

"Freud belongs to those few men who saw their life and personality placed in the limelight and themselves exposed as an object to the curiosity of mankind. He tried to protect himself behind a screen of secrecy, but legends grew all the more around him, and he has been subjected to many contradictory judgments.(...) We do not know much about Freud's relationship with Martha after their marriage." [mijn nadruk] (458)

[Dat is voor de hand liggend en erg typisch voor iemand die bang is voor kritiek.]

"From 1900 on, Freud's personality appears in a new light. His selfanalysis had transformed the unsure young practitioner into a self-assured founder of a new doctrine and school, convinced that he had made a great discovery, which he saw as his mission to give to the world. Unfortunately, we lack contemporary descriptions of Freud during that period. Most accounts of him were written much later, after 1923 . In that period Freud's personality was transformed through his world fame and the physical sufferings caused by an unrelenting illness."(459)

"His conviction of the truth of his theories was so complete that he did not admit contradiction. This was called intolerance by his opponents and passion for truth by his followers." [mijn nadruk] (463)

[Wat is het oordeel van volgers waard?]

"The personality orientations of Freud and Wagner-Jauregg were so different that the two could hardly be expected to understand each other. Wagner-Jauregg fully recognized the value of Freud's neurological work, and possibly his early studies in neurosis, but he could not accept as scientifically valid Freud's further developments, such as the interpretation of dreams and the libido theory. (...) However, one of his pupils, Emil Raimann, became a sharp adversary of Freud, and Freud seemed to blame Wagner-Jauregg for these attacks. Wagner-Jauregg said that Freud, being an intolerant man, could not understand that anyone else could allow their pupils to have opinions of their own, but at Freud 's request, Wagner-Jauregg asked Raimann to cease criticizing Freud, which Raimann did ." [mijn nadruk] (470)

[Zo denk ik er ook over. Leve WJ!]

"Freud saw similarities between his thinking and that of Schnitzler, but Schnitzler, despite all his admiration for Freud's writings, emphasized his disagreement with the main tenets of psychoanalysis. Both men actually explored, in their own ways, the same realm, but came to different conclusions."(473)

"These facts are of interest because they show that, in his neurological period, too. Freud received both praise and criticism, contrary to the assumption that he received nothing but praise as long as he was a neurologist. and nothing but abuse as soon as he turned to the study of neuroses. From the beginning it was Freud's tendency to make bold generalizations that gave rise to criticism." [mijn nadruk] (477)

Bespreking van Project for a Scientific Psychology uit 1895.

"The main idea of the Project is the correlation of psychological processes with the distribution and circulation of quantities of energy throughout certain material elements, that is, hypothetical brain structures."(478)

"Freud 's Project of 1895 may be understood as a logical development of the theories of his predecessors, particularly of his masters Briicke, Meynert, and Exner. It is the outcome and legacy of a century of brain mythology. This is probably why Freud abandoned this Project as soon as he had completed it. But many of the ideas formulated in the Project were to reappear under various new forms in Freud 's subsequent psychoanalytic theories"(480)

"The development of Freud's new theory of neuroses, from 1886 to 1896, may be followed through his publications and his letters to Fliess."(484)

"Freud proclaimed this theory as a great discovery, which he compared to that of " the source of the Nile in neuro-pathology" . In contrast with the "Preliminary Communication" of 1893, he now contended to be able to cure not only the symptoms of hysteria, but hysteria itself. Actually, only a year passed before Freud, as seen in a letter to Fliess, had to admit that he had been misled by his patients' fantasies. This was a decisive turning point in psychoanalysis: Freud found that in the unconscious it is impossible to distinguish fantasies from memories, and from that time on he was not so much concerned with the reconstruction of events from the past through the uncovering of suppressed memories, than with the exploration of fantasies." [mijn nadruk] (488)

[Altijd weer een bescheiden man, die Freud. En hoe kun je weten van oorzaak-gevolg-relaties op dit terrein?]

"Depth psychology claimed to furnish a key to the exploration of the unconscious mind, and through this a renewed knowledge of the conscious mind, with wider application to the understanding of literature, art, religion, and culture."(490)

"Freud's innovation lay not in introducing the notions of resistance and transference, but in the idea of analyzing them as a basic tool of therapy"(490)

[Verderop volgt een bespreking van de Dora-casus. Ik vind Ellenberger hier weinig kritisch. Hij blijft toch gemakkelijk hangen binnen de uitgangspunten over het onbewuste en de psychoanalyse.]

"When the Three Essays appeared in 1905, the zeitgeist was of extreme interest in sexual problems, and it is difficult to distinguish the limit between Freud's sources and the parallel developments that were taking place around him. Contemporary sexual mores at that time had retained little, if anything, of the attitudes symbolized by the word "Victorianism." August Forel, in his memoirs, gives a lively description of the laxity of sexual mores in Vienna, adding that it was not any better in Paris. Zilboorg mentions that "leagues of free love" were thriving all over the Czarist Empire among students and adolescents. and that this was "a phenomenon of a sociological nature" by no means limited to Russia. Problems of venereal diseases, contraception, and sexual enlightenment of children were discussed freely everywhere. All possible facets of sexual life appeared "with glaring frankness" (in Zilboorg's terms) in the works of Maupassant, Schnitzler, Wedekind, and many others; they also were discussed in a somewhat vehement fashion in journals such as Karl Kraus' Die Fackel.(...) Above all, the new science of sexual pathology, which had grown slowly during the nineteenth century, had received its decisive impetus thirty years earlier with the publication of Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis. Since 1886 the flow of literature on that subject had grown steadily and had become difficult to survey. In 1899 Magnus Hirschfeld had started the publication of a yearbook, part of which tried to cover the then current bibliography. Whereas the first volume had 282 pages, the fourth (in 1902) counted 980 pages, the fifth (in 1903) had 1,368 pages, the sixth (in 1904) 744 pages, and that of 1905, 1,084 pages. No wonder that there is not much in Freud's Three Essays that cannot be found among the facts, theories, and speculations contained in that flood of literature." [mijn nadruk] (502-503)

"Notions of infantile sexuality and early phases of sexual development were not quite new. (...) Freud's concept of anal eroticism seems to be more original, although some of its aspects had been anticipated."(504)

"One of the aspects o f psychoanalysis that became most popular pertains to sexual symbols ( the "Freudian symbols"). In this field, Freud's many predecessors can be placed into four groups:"(506)

[Niet zo erg freudiaans dus, als je al die voorbeelden leest.]

"Current accounts of Freud's life state that the publication of his sexual theories aroused anger because of their unheard-of novelty in a "Victorian" society. Documentary evidence shows that this does not correspond to fact. Freud's Three Essays appeared in the midst of a flood of contemporary literature on sexology and were favorably received. Freud's main originality was to synthesize ideas and concepts, the majority of which lay scattered or partially organized, and to apply them directly to psychotherapy. A clinical illustration was the case of little Hans, which was for the libido theory what the Dora case had been for depth psychology." [mijn nadruk] (506)

"Freud's concept of the death instinct also had many precursors. Von Schubert among the Romantics had expressed it clearly, mainly as a wish, in the latter part of life. to die."(514)

"To many of Freud's contemporaries, the theory of the human psychological structure consisting of these three entities, the ego, the id, and the superego, seemed perplexing, even though there was nothing revolutionary in it."(516)

"As a consequence of these new theories, the focus of Freudian therapy shifted from the analysis of the instinctual forces to that of the ego, from the repressed to the repressing. Analysis of defenses would necessarily uncover anxiety, and the task of the analyst was now to dispel the excess of anxiety and to strengthen the ego, so that it could face reality and control the pressure of drives and the superego." [mijn nadruk] (517)

"An account of Freud's psychoanalytic method, written in 1904 at the request of Loewenfeld, shows the modifications it had undergone in the previous ten years. The patient still reclined on a couch, but the doctor now sat on a chair behind his range of vision . The patient no longer closed his eyes, nor did Freud place his hand on the patient's forehead. The method of free association was now dominated by a basic rule: the patient should say anything that came to his mind, no matter how absurd, immoral, or painful it seemed. Freud explained how he analyzed resistance with the gaps and distortions in the material obtained. A new comprehensive technique of interpretation utilized as material, not only the free associations and resistance, but the patient's parapraxes, symptomatic acts, and dreams as well. Freud now rejected the use of hypnosis and contended that the psychoanalytic technique was much easier than the reader could surmise from its written description.
One year later, in 1905, Freud showed in the Dora case how dream interpretation could be used for psychotherapy. Transference was redefined as an unconscious revival of life events, in which the therapist is viewed as if he had been one of the participants. Transference, the greatest obstacle to the cure, was now considered the most powerful therapeutic tool, if skillfully handled by the doctor.
In 1910, Freud drew attention toward counter-transference, that is, the irrational feelings of the therapist toward the patient." [mijn nadruk] (519)

[Of beter gezegd: de Dora casus laat zien hoe willekeurig en subjectief en onbetrouwbaar droominterpretaties zijn.]

"Certain features of psychoanalytic technique can be understood in the context of what neuropathologists wrote at the end of the nineteenth century about the "diabolical cleverness" of hysterics in deceiving the therapist and involving him in their games. It is as if each rule of Freudian technique was devised to defeat the cunning of these patients. The specific setting (the psychoanalyst seeing without being seen) deprives the patient of an audience and of the satisfaction of watching the therapist's reactions. The basic rule, together with the analyst's neutral attitude, prevents the patient from distorting words of the analyst, and places the latter in the position of a sensible parent who ignores the silly utterances of a little child. The rule that all appointments must be paid, whether kept or not, and in advance, prevents the patient from punishing the therapist by absenteeism and nonpayment. The analysis of transference as it occurs defeats the hysteric's concealed but always present aim: the seduction of the therapist. For the same reason, full liberty is given to verbalization, but any kind of acting-out is prohibited, and no contact with the therapist is allowed outside the hours of treatment. Because of the hysteric's tendency to defeat the therapist by any means, even at the cost of remaining sick, a cure is never promised, and the patient is told that the healing depends on his or her own efforts."(523)

[En dat geeft de therapie ook een erg autoritair karakter waarbij de therapeut het allemaal beter weet.]

Verderop bespreekt Ellenberger alle mogelijke invloeden en bronnen van Freuds werk en de psychoanalyse.

"An objective appraisal of the influence of Freud is inordinately difficult. The story is too recent, distorted by legend, and all the facts have not yet come to light.
The consensus is that Freud exerted a powerful influence, not only on psychology and psychiatry, but on all the fields of culture and that it has gone so far as to change our way of life and our concept of man. A more intricate question pertains to the divergencies that arise as soon as one tries to assess the extent that that influence was beneficial or not. On one side are those who include Freud among the liberators of the human spirit, and who even think that the future of mankind depends on whether it will accept or discard the teachings of psychoanalysis. On the other side are those who claim that the effect of psychoanalysis has been disastrous. La Piere, for instance, claims that Freudianism ruined the ethics of individualism, self-discipline, and responsibility that prevailed among the Western world.
Any attempt to give an objective answer to these two questions - namely of the extent and nature of the influence of psychoanalysis - has to face three great difficulties.
First: as in the case of Darwin, the historical importance of a theory is not restricted to what it originally was in the mind of its author, but also of the extensions, adjunctions, interpretations, and distortions of that theory. Thus, an evaluation of Freud's influence should begin with a historical account of the Freudian school and the various trends that issued from it: the orthodox Freudians, the more original successors (for instance, the promoters of ego psychoanalysis) , the deviant schools proper, with their own schisms and deviant branches, and those other schools (Adler and Jung) , which were founded on radically different basic principles, though as a response to psychoanalysis. And, last but not least, one should take into account the distorted pseudo-Freudian concepts that have been widely vulgarized through the newspapers, magazines, and popular literature.
Second: a still greater difficulty arises from the fact that from the beginning, psychoanalysis has grown in an atmosphere of legend, with the result that an objective appraisal will not be possible before the true historical facts are completely separated from the legend . It would be invaluable to know the starting point of the Freudian legend and the factors that brought it to its present development. Unfortunately the scientific study of legends, of their thematic structure, their growth, and their causes, is one of the least-known provinces of science and to this date nothing has been written in regard to Freud that could be compared to Etiemble's study of the legend that grew around the poet Rimbaud. A rapid glance at the Freudian legend reveals two main features. The first is the theme of the solitary hero struggling against a host of enemies, suffering "the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune" but triumphing in the end. The legend considerably exaggerates the extent and role of anti-Semitism, of the hostility of the academic world, and of alleged Victorian prejudices. The second feature of the Freudian legend is the blotting out of the greatest part of the scientific and cultural context in which psychoanalysis developed, hence the theme of the absolute originality of the achievements, in which the hero is credited with the achievements of his predecessors, associates, disciples, rivals, and contemporaries. The legend discarded, we are permitted to see the facts in a different light. Freud is shown as having an average career of the contemporary academic man in central Europe, a career whose beginnings were only slightly hampered by anti-Semitism , and with no more setbacks than many others. He lived in a time when scientific polemics had a more vehement tone than today, and he never suffered the degree of hostility as did men such as Pasteur and Ehrlich. The current legend, on the other hand, attributes to Freud much of what belongs, notably, to Herbart, Fechner, Nietzsche, Meynert, Benedikt, and Janet, and overlooks the work of previous explorers of the unconscious, dreams, and sexual pathology. Much of what is credited to Freud was diffuse current lore, and his role was to crystallize these ideas and give them an original shape." [mijn nadruk] (546-548)

"It thus happened to Freud as it had happened to Darwin and to others before them. that they seemed to launch an overwhelming cultural revolution when actually it was the revolution rooted in socioeconomic changes that carried them. Coming back to Freud , it will certainly be a long time before one will be able to discern what can be attri buted to the direct impact of his teaching, and to what extent the diffuse social, economic. and cultural trends prevailed themselves of Freudian, or pseudo-Freudian, concepts toward their own end." [mijn nadruk] (549)

"Whatever the number of its sources and the intricacies of its context, the psychoanalytic theory is universally recognized as a powerful and original synthesis that has been the incentive to numerous researchers and findings in the field of normal and abnormal psychology. However, the problem of its scientific status is not yet clarified."(549)

[O, dat lijkt me simpel: het heeft geen wetenschappelijke status.]

"This paradox has brought many Freudians to view psychoanalysis as a discipline that stands outside the field of experimental science and more akin to history, philosophy, linguistics, or as a variety of hermeneutics."(549)

"Freud was the inventor of a new mode of dealing with the unconscious, that is, the psychoanalytic situation with the basic rule, free associating, and the analysis of resistances and transference. This is Freud's incontestable innovation."(549)

[Wat allemaal oncontroleerbare kennis oplevert.]

"Almost from the beginning Freud made psychoanalysis a movement, with its own organization and publishing house, its strict rules of membership, and its official doctrine, namely the psychoanalytic theory."(550)

[Precies, een dogmatische geloofsgemeenschap, een kerk.]

(571) 8 - Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology

"Contrary to common assumption, neither Adler nor Jung is a "psychoanalytic deviant, " and their systems are not merely distortions of psychoanalysis. Both had their own ideas before meeting Freud, collaborated with him while keeping their independence, and, after leaving him, developed systems that were basically different from psychoanalysis, and also basically different from each other.
The fundamental difference between Adler's individual psychology and Freud's psychoanalysis can be summarized as follows: Freud's aim is to incorporate into scientific psychology those hidden realms of the human psyche that had been grasped intuitively by the Greek tragedians, Shakespeare, Goethe, and other great writers. Adler is concerned with the field of Menschenkenntnis, that is, the concrete, practical knowledge of man. The interest of individual psychology is that it is the first recorded, unified, complete system of Menschenkenntnis, a system vast enough to encompass also the realm of neuroses, psychoses, and criminal behavior. For that reason, when studying Adler, the reader must temporarily put aside all that he learned about psychoanalysis and adjust to a quite different way of thinking." [mijn nadruk] (571)

"Adler's university career was checked from the beginning. He began as a general practitioner in a nonresidential quarter, and struggled for the creation of social medicine. After his association with Freud, the group he founded had, more than psychoanalysis, the feature of a political movement. His patients belonged mostly to the lower or middle class, and social problems always remained the focus of his interest." [mijn nadruk] (572)

"Whereas Freud primarily stressed the importance of the child's relationship with its parents, and secondarily with its siblings, Alfred Adler attributed more importance to the position of the child in the line of siblings than to his relationship with his parents ..."(576)

"The family constellation, too, was quite different with these two men. Adler was the second-born who felt rejected by the mother but protected by the father, so having experienced the opposite situation from Freud's he could never accept the idea of the Oedipus complex. It is noteworthy that Adler, though he was a Jew and a foreigner in his own country, never felt as if he belonged to a minority; he saw himself as participating in the popular life of the city, and his intimate knowledge of the Viennese idiom made it possible for him to give public speeches as a man of the people. One can understand, therefore, how the concept of community feeling was to become the central point in his teaching." [mijn nadruk] (579-580)

[Ik mis in die vergelijkingen met Freud een bepaald thema: Adler maakte muziek, leefde in een gezin waarin muziek een plaats had, terwijl dat bij Freud geen rol speelt. En dat zegt alles over een persoon.]

Er is weinig biografisch materiaal (gepubliceerd) over Adler. We weten dus niet veel over zijn leven.

"Since at that time psychiatry was not an obligatory course, Adler did not receive any psychiatric teaching; nor did he hear the lectures of the Privat Dozent Sigmund Freud on hysteria. However, in his fifth semester he followed Krafft-Ebing's course on "the most important diseases of the nervous system"."(581)

"We do find his name, however, on the list of those young doctors who worked at the Poliklinik in 1895 and 1896. The Viennese Poliklinik, a benevolent institution, was founded in 1871 , mainly under the initiative of Moritz Benedikt, to provide free medical care to people of the working class at a time when there was no social security. The doctors who worked there were not paid. For young physicians it was an opportunity to acquire clinical experience and perhaps also to find prospective clients." [mijn nadruk] (582)

"According to Carl Furtmiiller, Adler had taken a deep interest in socialism in his student days, had attended socialist political meetings, without, however, taking an active part, and met in these groups his future wife, Raissa Timofeyevna Epstein, who had come to Vienna as a student, since women were not allowed to study in Russian universities at that time."(583)

"It is in that crucial year 1902 that Adler became acquainted with Freud. The usual story is that the Neue Freie Presse had published a derogatory review of Freud's Interpretation of Dreams, whereupon Adler wrote a letter of protest, which was also published by that paper. This brought Adler to the attention of Freud, who thanked him with a postcard, inviting him to visit him. In point of fact the Neue Freie Presse never published a review of The Interpretation of Dreams, nor any article against Freud, and it is not known under what circumstances the two men met." [mijn nadruk] (583)

[Weer zo'n mythe.]

"From 1902 to 1911 , Adler belonged to the psychoanalytic circle of which he had been one of the first four members and that slowly grew around Freud. Until 1904 he pursued his collaboration with Heinrich Grün's journal. But from 1905 on he wrote various psychoanalytically oriented contributions for medical and pedagogical journals. (...) It seems that he was the most active member of the circle and that Freud held him in high esteem during those first years."(584)

"At the same time it became more and more apparent that Adler's own views on neuroses diverged from those of Freud. Adler's contributions could no longer be viewed as complements to psychoanalysis, since they contradicted Freud's basic assumptions. Nevertheless, when the question arose of organizing the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society, Freud recommended Adler for president. and for the newly founded Centralblatt, that Adler and Stekel became the joint editors. But soon afterward the divergencies between his and Freud's views became so acute that it was deemed necessary to devote several sessions to their clarification." [mijn nadruk] (584)

"After vainly attempting a reconciliation, Adler left the Society together with his friend Furtmüller and a few others. With the six members who had resigned with him and some others, Adler founded a new group, the Society for Free Psychoanalysis, which soon after was named the Society for Individual Psychology."(585)

Volgt een karakterisering van zijn persoonlijkheid. Daarna volgt een plaatsing van Adler tegenover zijn tijdgenoten (Wilhelm Stekel), een overzicht van zijn opvattingen, en een behandeling van zijn invloed (met name op de neo-psychoanalyse).

(657) 9 - Carl Gustav Jung and Analytical Psychology

"Carl Gustav Jung, no more than Alfred Adler, is a deviant from Freud's psychoanalysis, and his analytic psychology should not be measured with the yardstick of Freudian psychoanalysis any more than psychoanalysis should be measured with the yardstick of analytic psychology. Both should be understood in terms of their own philosophy.
The fundamental differences between Jung's and Freud's systems can be summed up as follows:
First, the philosophical foundation is quite another. Jung's analytic psychology, like Freud 's psychoanalysis, is a late offshoot of Romanticism, but psychoanalysis is also the heir of positivism, scientism, and Darwinism, whereas analytic psychology rejects that heritage and returns to the unaltered sources of psychiatric Romanticism and philosophy of nature.
Second, whereas Freud 's aim is to explore that part of the human mind that was known intuitively by the great writers, Jung claims to have approached objectively and annexed to science a realm of the human soul intermediate between religion and psychology."(657)

[En dat maakt alles wat Jung beweert nog vager dan wat Freud beweert.]

"His patients were at first institutionalized psychotics from the lower social strata, and later they were mostly neurotics from the upper classes.
The life of Carl Gustav Jung can be viewed as an example of social ascension. Born into an impoverished middle-class family, he was an impecunious student, began his career as a mental hospital doctor and university psychiatrist, and then became a psychotherapist of world renown and the founder and head of a school. Toward the end of his life he personified the almost legendary figure of the "old wise man of Küsnacht," whom people from all parts of the world came to visit."(658)

"Our knowledge of Carl Gustav lung's life is still imperfect. Biographic accounts are sketchy and reveal wide gaps.(...) A small part of Jung's extensive correspondence has been published, and many of his writings are not available in printed form."(663)

"He was good in Latin , but poor in mathematics."(664)

"In his autobiography Jung relates that he considers his discovery of Nietzsche's Zarathustra as a major event of this period, a book that exerted an extraordinary fascination on him as it did on so many of the young men of his generation."(665-666)

[Ook precies het meest vage en meest religieus getinte boek van Nietzsche. Jung is echt totaal opgegroeid in een wereld van irrationaliteit, religie, etc.]

"... he applied for a post in the famed Burgholzli Psychiatric Hospital in Zurich.
Meanwhile Jung had passed his final examination, probably in October 1899 and had completed his first period of military service (the so-called Recruits School) as an infantryman in Aarau. He then started his new activity at the Burgholzli on December 11, 1900. The newly appointed resident who arrived at the Burgholzli was introduced by the doorman into a waiting room, where, a moment later, Professor Eugen Bleuler came to greet him with a few words of welcome. Then, despite the protests of the young physician, the professor would take his suitcase and bring it himself to the resident's room. From this moment on, the young man was to live in a kind of psychiatric monastery. Eugen Bleuler was the personification of work and duty."(666)

"Upon his return from Paris, Jung resumed his work at the Burgholzli and was married on February 14, 1903, to Emma Rauschenbach, the daughter of a wealthy industrialist of Schaffhausen. Bleuler, who had just introduced the use of psychological tests such as they existed at that time to Burgholzli, asked Jung to experiment with the Word Association Test, research in which he subsequently showed himself very successful."(668)

"About the same time, Jung left the Burgholzli and moved to his house in Kiisnacht, where he was to spend the rest of his life. This turning point in his life has been explained in various ways, but no doubt an acute conflict had developed between him and Bleuler. It was felt that Jung was so involved with psychoanalysis that he neglected his hospital duties, and the two men had frequent clashes of opinion. Jung now devoted himself to his growing private practice, and played an eminent role in the psychoanalytic movement during 1909 to 1913." [mijn nadruk] (669)

"The history of the relationship between Freud and Jung for a long time had been known only through the accounts given by Freud and his disciples. Jung's version of the story was presented by him in 1925 in a seminar for a limited group of students, and in 1962 to a larger audience in his autobiography. Jung never concealed his admiration for Freud and his discoveries. But Freud also represented for him the father figure he had failed to discover in Flournoy and in Janet. Freud was looking for a disciple worthy of succeeding him, and he believed to have found him in Jung. There was thus a period of mutual enthusiasm, which was heightened by the fact that it was not only Jung, but his master Bleuler, who publicly took the defense of Freud. But from the very start there also was a fundamental misunderstanding. Freud wanted disciples who would accept his doctrine without reservation. Bleuler and Jung saw their relationship as a collaboration that left both sides free. At the beginning, the relationship was facilitated by mutual good will. Jung had the same winning and flexible nature as his paternal grandfather; Freud was disposed to be patient and to make certain concessions, although he remained unyielding in regard to his theory of the Oedipus complex and the libido. But these were the ideas that Jung never accepted, and so it was inevitable that Freud would come to reproach Jung for his opportunism, and Jung to reject Freud for his authoritarian dogmatism. The true story of their relationship will probably be known only when their correspondence is published." [mijn nadruk] (669)

"We thus see that the intermediate period from 1913 to 1919 was that of a creative illness. It had the same features that we have already singled out in Freud 's illness. The creative illnesses of both these men succeeded a period of intense preoccupation with the mysteries of the human soul."(672)

"It is another characteristic of those who have lived through such a spiritual adventure to attribute a universal value to their own personal experience. Those who have known Jung remember the tone of absolute conviction with which he spoke of the anima, the self, the archetypes, and the collective unconscious. For him they were psychological realities that existed as certainly as did the material world around him." [mijn nadruk] (673)

[Dat overstijgt dus niet het niveau van 'ik voel het zo en dus is het zo' waarmee alles wat je beweert oncontroleerbaar is voor anderen.]

Meer over Jungs persoonlijkheid, tijdgenoten.

"In order to define with more precision the position of analytic psychology among the sciences of the spirit. it might be useful to contrast Jung with three of his contemporaries: the theologian Karl Barth , the philosopher Paul Haberlin, and the anthroposophist Rudolf Steiner."(682)

"Similarities between Jung and Steiner were repeatedly pointed out. Both men had parapsychological experiences, both imagined a method of selftraining that led them to explore the abysses of the unconscious mind, and both emerged from their respective spiritual journeys with a new personality. No wonder both of them view life as a succession of metamorphoses , the central one being "the turning of life, " around the age of thirty-five."(686)

[Dat lijkt me geen compliment voor Jung. Twee vage figuren met vage beweringen ...]

"Although Jung's conceptual framework differs radically from that of Freud , Jung stands infinitely closer to Freud than to a theologian such as Barth , a philosopher such as Haberlin, or an anthroposophist such as Rudolf Steiner."(687)

"Jung deplored the current lack of interest in metaphysics. "When the normal man fancies that nothing metaphysical ever occurs in his life, he forgets one metaphysical happening: his death ." Death has always been the starting point for transcendent hopes , and these hopes postulate the existence of the soul. The task of a rational psychology is to demonstrate the existence of a soul. The soul can be conceived as an intelligence independent from time and space ." [mijn nadruk] (688)

[Wat een onzin toch allemaal.]

"Remarkable was the tone of Jung's absolute conviction when speaking of the soul (a term that had disappeared from psychology) and the way he defined it as immaterial, transcendent, outside of time and space -- and yet to be approached scientifically. Among the means of obtaining cognizance of the soul were the study of somnambulism, hypnosis, and spiritistic manifestations. Thus to Jung spiritism was not a matter of occultism, but of unknown psychic phenomena that needed to be investigated with proper scientific methods."(689)

[Wat voor wetenschappelijke methoden mogen dat wel zijn dan?]

Volgt een beschrijving van Jungs werk en opvattingen en de bronnen waaruit hij putte. Daarna gaat het over zijn invloed.

(749) 10 - The Dawn and Rise of the New Dynamic Psychiatry

"This is why, after describing the social, political, cultural, and medical background of the new dynamic psychiatry and attempting to summarize the doctrines of its four great representatives, Janet, Freud, Adler, and Jung, it remains for us to sketch the complex interrelationship of these great systems with one another and with minor ones, as well as with the general background of contemporary events. We will take as our starting point Olarcot's memorable paper on hypnosis in February 1 882, which opened the new era, and terminate at the end of World War II because after that date we lack sufficient perspective for a synthetic view." [mijn nadruk] (749)

"The eleven years between 1882 and 1893 saw the resurrection of animal magnetism in a modified form under the name of hypnosis and suggestion. Scientific sanction was given to these practices by two academic centers: the one around Charcot at the Salpetrière, and the other around Bernheim in Nancy. The work of these two schools, and their rivalries, dominated the scene. This period may be divided into three subperiods." [mijn nadruk] (749)

"These men shared an illusion, which has by no means disappeared today, that everything they brought forth was new." [mijn nadruk] (750)

[Zeer geschikt als citaat, ook voor de wereld van vandaag de dag. ]

"No doubt, Freud was not one of those who, like Delboeuf, went to the Salpetrière to watch with critical eyes the way Charcot experimented with his hysterical subjects. Freud was fascinated by the personality of the great man. What Freud saw in Charcot was not only the world fame of the great neurologist, the artistic gifts, the eloquence, and the manner of the man of the world, but also his way of seeing people and things without preconceived ideas." [mijn nadruk] (753)

[Met andere woorden: hij was niet geïnteresseerd in de controleerbaarheid van de inhoud, maar in de indruk die de man maakte. Geen "preconceived ideas"? Laat me lachen.]

"In Russia, Tarnowsky also published a volume on sexual deviations that met much success. However, it was Krafft-Ebing's work, with its more philosophical scope, perhaps also its striking title, that produced on the field of sexual pathology the same effect as Charcot's paper of 1882 on the field of hypnotism . "The gates were open," and from then on the number of publications on sexual pathology increased from year to year."(756)

"Dessoir in Germany and Hericourt in France tried to make an inventory of the knowledge acquired on the unconscious mind. Moritz Benedikt published case histories illustrating his observations on the secret life of daydreams and suppressed emotions (especially of the sexual kind) and their role in the pathogenesis of hysteria and neuroses.
Sexual psychopathology was another field that increasingly attracted interest. Physicians not only described and classified varieties of sexual deviations, but also studied the masked effects of sexual disturbances on emotional and physical life. Such were the publications, in Zurich, of Alexander Peyer on the noxious effects of coitus interruptus and particularly its manifestations as "sexual asthma.""(762)

"The demand for a new psychology, wider than just hypnotism and suggestion, was manifested throughout Europe."(765)

"Thus we can see that in 1892 there was a choice of psychotherapies ranging from hypnotic suggestion and catharsis to the combination of supportive, expressive, and directive therapy. Such was the situation at the beginning of the crucial year 1893."(767)

"Predominance and Decline of the Nancy School: 1894-1900
With the death of Charcot. the reign of the Salpetrière seemed over. Charcot had been losing ground to the Nancy School during the last few years, and a reaction against Charcot's ideas also came from within the Salpetrière."(770)

"The reception given The Interpretation of Dreams has given rise to a tenacious legend. "Seldom has an important book produced no echo whatever, " Jones said; and according to Freud, eighteen months after the publication of the book no psychiatric journal had reviewed it. Ilse Bry and Alfred Rifkin have shown that it was, in fact, quite otherwise ..."

[De zoveelste "boeoeboehoe ze begrijpen ons niet" - legende. ]

"Psychological Analysis Versus Psychoanalysis: 1901-1914
The entry into the twentieth century was felt by contemporaries as the dawning of a new era. Decadence and the fin de siecle atmosphere had become intolerable.(...) This period, the Belle Epoque. seems in retrospect as one of peace, security, and joie de vivre, but to contemporaries it was one of "armed peace" with war continually hovering in the near future.(...)
There was a general desire to turn one 's back on the nineteenth century and seek new paths. The new sports of motoring and skiing became fashionable. Intellectuals hailed new thinkers: the philosopher Henri Bergson, the economist Vilfredo Pareto,. and the political thinker Georges Sorel, who introduced a new antidemocratic ideology. In dynamic psychiatry the same attitude was manifested by the rejection of the first dynamic psychiatry, disinterest in hysteria and hypnosis. and the search for new psychotherapies, such as that of Dubois. Two names, however, seemed to polarize the new dynamic psychiatry: Pierre Janet in Paris, and Sigmund Freud in Vienna." [mijn nadruk] (785)

"Since the publication of Kratft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis in 1886, the number of publications on sexual pathology had steadily increased. Sexual pathology now attracted as much attention as Lombroso's theories had during the past two decades. In a treatise on sexual pathology, Rohleder emphasized the frequency of masturbation in the infant, and that "the libido sexualis can manifest itself in the earliest youth, even in the infant age. ""(786)

"In the psychological literature of that year, however, nothing could match the success of Weininger's book, Sex and Character"(788)

[In één bladzijde samenvatting zie je hoe hier een klassieke rolverdeling van mannen en vrouwen wordt neergezet, feiten en waarden lopen er waarschijnlijk voortdurend door elkaar, de onderbouwing zal wel weer slecht zijn.]

"The year 1905 was a fruitful one for Sigmund Freud, who published three of his main contributions : The Three Essays on the Sexual Theory, Jokes and the Unconscious, and the case history of the patient Dora. The Three Essays are often said to have been a "revolutionary novelty" that "aroused a storm of indignation and abuse." These two contentions are, to say the least, exaggerated." [mijn nadruk] (792)

[Opnieuw de mythe.]

"The more psychoanalysis took the character of a movement, the more polemics arose around it."(796)

"The discussions on psychoanalysis at the Amsterdam Congress were a part of a wider controversy, the meaning of which has often been obscured by legend."(798)

"The more decided opposition against psychoanalysis came from persons who had previously received it with enthusiasm. Karl Kraus's celebrated journal, Die Fackel, which waged a vehement fight against conventional sexual morality and glorified the Marquis de Sade and Weininger, had lauded Freud's Three Essays. Now Karl Kraus ridiculed a psychoanalyst who claimed to detect masturbation fantasies in Goethe's poem, The Apprentice Sorcerer. Kraus denied the healing power of psychoanalysis and compared psychoanalysts to meteorologists who would pretend not just to predict the weather, but to control it." [mijn nadruk] (799)

"Moreover, there was an abundance of literature about psychoanalysis, either in the form of impartial surveys, or as controversies in favor or against it.
Interesting in that regard is a paper read by Friedlander at the International Congress of Medicine in Budapest, because it shows what exactly the objections against psychoanalysis were: First, instead of the quiet demonstrations usual with scientists in their discussions, psychoanalysts make dogmatic affirmations punctuated by emotional outbursts; psychoanalysts are unique in equating Freud with such men as Kepler, Newton , and Semmelweis . and for the vigor of their attacks on their adversaries. Second, instead of proving their assertions in a scientific manner, psychoanalysts content themselves with unverifiable statements. They say: "We know from psychoanalytic experience that . . . " and lay the burden of proof on others. Third, psychoanalysts do not accept any criticism nor even the expressing of the most justified of doubts, terming these neurotic resistance. (...) Fourth, psychoanalysts ignore what has been done before them or by others, thereby claiming to be innovators. It is as if, before Freud, no hysterical patient was ever cured, and no psychotherapy ever practiced. Fifth, sexual theories of psychoanalysis are presented as scientific fact, though unproven (...) Sixth, Friedlander objected to the practice of psychoanalysts of addressing themselves directly to a wide lay public, as if their theories had already been scientifically proven; by so doing, they make those who do not accept the theories appear ignorant and backward.
Friedlander's arguments were supplemented with others by contemporary psychiatrists." [mijn nadruk] (802-803)

[Wauw, midden in de roos.]

"Psychoanalysts were increasingly active , notably in the field of the interpretation of myths, literature, and anthropology."(804)

[Hij heeft het hier over de periode vlak voor de Eerste Wereldoorlog. ]

"In a meeting of the psychiatrists and neurologists of southwest Germany in Baden-Baden, on May 8, Dr . Hoche made a memorable speech on "A Psychic Epidemic Among Physicians. "
A psychic epidemic, he said, is "the transmission of specific representations of a compelling power in a great number of heads, resulting in the loss of judgment and lucidity." Freud's followers, he said, did not belong to a "School" in the scientific sense but a kind of sect, that does not bring forth verifiable facts but articles of faith. Psychoanalysis shows all the features of a sect: the fanatical conviction of being superior to others, its jargon, the sharp intolerance of and tendency to vilify those of another belief, its high veneration for the Master, its tendency to proselytize, its readiness to accept the most monstrous improbabilities, and the fantastic overevaluation of what has already been accomplished and can be accomplished by adherents of the sect."(806)

[Ook midden in de roos.]

"A group of scholars founded a Gesellschaft fur positivistische Philosophie (Society for Positivist Philosophy ) , with headquarters in Berlin, with the aim of arriving at a unified, scientific conception of the universe, and thus to solve mankind's problems. Among the members of the society were Ernst Mach, Josef Popper, Albert Einstein, August Forel, and Sigmund Freud."(809)

"Controversies around psychoanalysis raged more than ever. To understand their true meaning requires a thorough knowledge of the cultural background of the time. This is well illustrated by an example of a controversy that occurred in Zurich at the beginning of 1912."(809-810)

"On January 31, the Neue Zürcher Zeitung published Kesselring's answer to Forel. He maintained that psychoanalysis could be dangerous, and that he was not the only one to have observed its disastrous effects on patients. It was an untenable attitude, he added, that psychoanalysts should speak only of their successes in their treatments while forbidding others to mention their failures. The fact that psychoanalysts were so sensitive betrayed their lack of objectivity, and made any constructive discussion impossible." [mijn nadruk] (814)

"From the example of this Zurich controversy of 1912 one can surmise that the real nature of the opposition to psychoanalysis in those years was very different from the picture that is usually given of it today. The current stereotype is that "Freud's discoveries met fierce and fanatical resistance from those who could not accept his concept of sexuality, in view of the 'Victorian' prejudices of the times and of neurotic repression ." Actually, objective examination of facts shows that the situation was quite different. In the controversies around psychoanalysis, at least five elements should be distinguished ... (...) The picture of these controversies would be incomplete without mentioning that they were equally vehement among psychoanalysts." [mijn nadruk] (814-815)

"The true history of this episode has never been written as yet, nor has the true history of the polemics around psychoanalysis. The current version that Freud and his disciples were the victims of massive attacks by dishonest enemies does not stand before an objective examination of the available facts, nor does the story of alleged persecutions. There were lively, sometimes vehement, discussions in medical societies and congresses, but there is no record that anyone ever questioned Freud's sincerity or integrity." [mijn nadruk] (820)

Vervolgens wordt de periode World War I: July 1914-November 1918 besproken.

"During the war years the great systems of dynamic psychiatry were reformulated by their authors."(826)

"Of the four great dynamic systems, the only one that made tangible progress during the war was psychoanalysis."(827)

Vervolgens: Between the Two World Wars: November 1918-September 1939

"The catastrophic mood of the period is reflected in the drama by Karl Kraus: The Last Days of Mankind. Like Spengler's book, it had been written during the war years though it appeared later. It is a vast, apocalyptic vision picturing not only the end of Austria, but the destruction of human values, the defeat of mankind, and the disintegration of our planet viewed as a sin against cosmic harmony."(831)

"In spite of the extreme harshness of the times, the psychoanalytic movement was reorganized and contact reestablished with some foreign countries. Three American psychoanalysts went to Vienna for a training analysis with Freud. Freud's disciples remained prolific writers. They published among others a collection of studies on war neuroses."(832)

"The Surrealists had kept the negative attitude and the rejection of accepted values of Dadaism: family, country, religion, work, and even honor. Many of them joined, at least temporarily, the Communist party. However, their great concern was the exploration of the hidden realms of the mind, which the Romantics had called the night side of Nature, that is, the unconscious, dreams, mental illness, the fantastic, and the wonderful."(834)

"Breton came to the conclusion that there is a mysterious realm in the human mind, a kind of central point that links the conscious individual with his innermost self, and at the same time with unknown forces in the universe. The aim of Surrealism is to reconquer that central point so that the individual might recover the totality of his psychic energy and the unknown riches within him. From this center emanate all forms of artistic creativity: poetry, paintings, and sculpting, as well as new forms of art."(836)

"The Surrealist movement is related to the history of dynamic psychiatry in several ways. It is clear that its leader, Andre Breton, took a great deal from the first dynamic psychiatry, even though his technique of automatic writing had nothing in common with that of the spiritists, William James, or Janet. Nor was his dictation from the unconscious identical with Freud's method of free association. Had Breton taken his medical degree and remained active in psychiatry, he could very well, with these new methods, have become the founder of a new trend of dynamic psychiatry."(837)

"Such polemics, however, did not impede the growth of the psychoanalytic movement. It was becoming fashionable for Englishmen and Americans to go to Vienna for didactic or therapeutic analysis. In Berlin the first Psychoanalytic Policlinic was opened by Max Eitingon. Freud was in a new creative phase and he published his essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle."(839)

"The first sign of a new and quite different approach was given when Ludwig Binswanger read a paper "On Phenomenology" at the Swiss Society for Neurology and Psychiatry. A psychiatrist with a philosophical background, who was a disciple of Bleuler and was influenced by Freud, Binswanger pointed out the interest of Husserl's phenomenology as a method that could be applied to clinical psychiatry. This contribution did not attract much attention at the moment, but when Rorschach gave his last communication to the Swiss Psychoanalytic Society on February 18, 1922, it was clear that he was developing his method of test interpretation in the direction of phenomenology. Soon afterward, however, Rorschach died on April 2, 1922, at the age of thirty-seven, and his loss was tragically felt by his colleagues." [mijn nadruk] (842)

"Psychology was developing rapidly and invading all fields of life in what came to be called the psychological revolution. This was particularly evident in Switzerland. In Geneva the pupils of Theodore Flournoy and Claparede were developing child psychology and the science of education. Jean Piaget published his Language and Thought in the Child, the first of a long series of monographs that were to renew our knowledge of child psychology and development."(843)

"The first paper on clinical phenomenology appeared in that year."(843)

[Dat jaar is 1923 ]

"In dynamic psychiatry. psychoanalysis was definitely the dominant trend and was discussed everywhere in Western Europe, in the United States, and even in Russia. In Bulgaria, Ivan Kinkel wrote a psychoanalytic study of revolutionary movements (with particular emphasis on the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799).
Much controversy developed around newer tendencies, and discussions were held as to whether they were deviant or not. At the very beginning of the year a joint book by Ferenczi and Rank pointed to new ways in psychoanalytic therapy and theory. In the course of the same year, each one of them brought forth a separate contribution, both publications being remarkably bold."(844)

Dan de jaren 1926-1929:

"The rejection of old moral standards and the all-pervading search for pleasure brought the French to call this period les annees folles (the crazy years). They came to a close abruptly with the collapse of the New York Stock Exchange in October 1929."(848)

"Another salient event of 1926 was the great International Congress for Sexual Research in Berlin, from October 11 to 16, organized by Albert Moll. Its aim was to make a total survey of the present knowledge of sexology, and it was divided into various sections such as biology, psychology, sociology. and criminology. and each section was represented by a brilliant array of eminent specialists. Freud declined to attend, and his disciples followed his example."(849)

"Two of Freud 's disciples, Federn and Meng, had the idea of publishing a book illustrating the influence and relevance of psychoanalysis in the various branches of science and human activity. Another of Freud's followers. Heinz Hartmann, wrote a systematic, basic account of the psychoanalytic doctrine."(849-850)

"The story of Russian psychoanalysis has actually never been written, nor do we know why exactly the Freudian theory, which had been considered materialistic, monistic, and compatible with Marxism, was suddenly discarded by Communist ideology."(852)

Vervolgens 1930-1939.

[Dit is eigenlijk zo'n slecht hoofdstuk. Een schets van de tijd per jaar bijna en daarbinnen een opsomming hoe de verschillende opvattingen op therapeutisch vlak zich ontwikkelden in verschillende landen en bij verschillende personen. Het is een eindeloze opsomming van historische feiten zonder enige kritische beoordeling van bovenaf. En het wordt alleen maar erger naarmate we verder komen in de tijd. Het is niet samen te vatten natuurlijk.]

Vervolgens het deel World War II: 1939-1945.

"The major fact, however, was the massive emigration of central European psychotherapists to England and even more to the United States. As a result, the center of the psychoanalytic and the individual psychological associations were transferred to America; English supplanted German as their official language."(862)

[En weer een eindeloos gefragmenteerde opsomming van feitjes. ]

(886) 11 - Conclusion

"Throughout this survey of the origin and development of dynamic psychiatry, we remained as much as possible on the ground of historical facts. We shall now try to analyze the factors that caused and directed that evolution in order to find an answer to the problem that was the starting point of our inquiry (as stated in the Introduction)."(886)

"In the first place. let us view the evolution of dynamic psychiatry against the socioeconomic and political background, notably that of economic history and class struggle."(886)

"The socioeconomic structure is the ground upon which cultural trends originate and develop. In Chapter 4 we reviewed those cultural movements that succeeded each other in the Western world after the Renaissance, namely those of Baroque, Enlightenment, Romanticism, and Positivism."(887)

[Dat wordt niet aangetoond of zelfs maar aannemelijk gemaakt.]

"In that light the rivalries between Janet, Freud, Adler, Jung and their disciples may be understood as belated waves of the struggles of the Enlightenment and Romanticism at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century."(887)

[Ik vraag me af of dat zo'n goede indeling is. Je zou het eigenlijk moeten indelen naar wetenschappelijke methoden van onderzoek die gehanteerd werden. Als die er al waren.]

"Each dynamic psychiatrist has his own specific feeling for psychic reality, and his theories are also influenced by the events of his life."(888)

"We are thus led to make a distinction between two groups of dynamic systems. To the first group belong those of Janet and Adler. Even if Janet made use of his own experience of psychasthenia, and Adler of his personal experience of organ inferiority, their main discoveries were obtained by means of objective clinical research. In the second group are the systems of Freud and Jung. Here the basic tenets originated from within, that is, from the experience of a creative illness."(890)

[Ellenberger komt daar de hele tijd mee. Maar precies die 'creative illness' leidt tot dogmatische stellingen die oncontroleerbaar zijn. Geef mij dan maar Janet en Adler. Dat lijkt me wetenschappelijk gezonder.]

"This distinction, in turn, brings a difficult question: What is the heuristic value of a creative illness? Is the certitude of having discovered a universal truth sufficient proof of the validity of that discovery? This question belongs to the more general problem of the validity of dynamic psychological experiences. One of its aspects is the specific character of the creative illness: it is a strictly personal experience for its pathfinder, but it sets a model for the follower, and this conformity of pattern will tend to be transmitted from one initiated to the other within the same school."

[Dat is geen antwoord op de gestelde vraag. Het antwoord daarop is simpelweg 'nee'. Dat komt niet verder dan 'ik voel het zo, dus moet het wel waar zijn'.]

"We are thus brought back to the paradox that was the starting point of our inquiry, namely, the fact that dynamic psychiatry underwent a seemingly incoherent succession of vicissitudes with phases of rejection and revival, in contrast to the consistent course of evolution of the physical sciences. At this point we must note that further basic differences distinguish dynamic psychiatry from the other sciences."(895)

['Other sciences' impliceert dat de dynamische psychiatrie een wetenschap is. Ik vind dat eerst maar eens aangetoond moet worden in hoeverre die dynamische psychiatrie werkelijk een wetenschap is.]

"Among the founders of modern dynamic psychiatry we note that only one, Janet, remained faithful to the tradition of unified science. Although he was a cofounder of a psychological society and of a psychological journal and although he created a powerful psychological synthesis, it never occurred to him to found a "movement" or a "school. " He expected his teachings to be integrated into the discipline of psychology, as Pasteur expected his discoveries to be integrated into medicine. Speaking of Freud, Adler and Jung we note, in contrast, that with them the word "school" has assumed the meaning it had in connection with the "philosophical schools" of Greco-Roman antiquity. That return from the concept of unified science to that of independent "schools" is an extraordinary novelty that does not seem to have attracted the attention it deserves." [mijn nadruk] (895-896)

[Het feit dat je denkt in termen van een school maakt dat je denkt in termen van volgers die vinden wat jij vindt. Zo gauw iemand kritiek heeft op wat jij beweert ligt hij er uit. En dat is dus helemaal tegengesteld aan hoe wetenschap werkt.]

"Actually, we have to deal with two conceptions of reality facing each other, and it would seem that the realm of psychic life can be approached from two sides, both legitimate: either with the accurate technique of measurement, quantification. and experimentation of the research specialist, or with the immediate, nonquantifiable approach of the dynamic psychotherapist."(896)

[Uiteraard. Maar dat ontslaat niemand van de plicht om zich te laten bekritiseren. Ook hermeneutische beweringen moeten onderbouwd worden en aannemelijk gemaakt worden. Iemand die wat hij beweerd immuun maakt voor kritiek, oncontroleerbaar maakt voor anderen, en zo verder is niet bezig met wetenschap.]